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PSYC 339: Origins of the Mind > Midterm 3 > Flashcards

Midterm 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Nativist perspective of number representation

A

our ability to have number representation goes beyond sensory information; not based on our environment; some parts are innate; core knowledge of numbers in infants and adults

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2
Q

Empiricist perspective of number representation

A

number representations are sensory representations; capacity to form associations; all parts of number representation are learned; knowledge of numbers are constructed from sensory representations

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3
Q

three of the four systems underlying number representation

A

shared with other animals

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4
Q

experiment found different parts of the brain activate when you are calculating exact numbers or approximate numbers

A

left inferior frontal –> exact
bilateral parietal –> approximate

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5
Q

four systems underlying number representation

A

ratio, representations are abstract, can add/subtract representations, positive integers

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6
Q

number sense

A

the sense that there are numbers and there are different numbers/different quantities of things

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7
Q

the number sense is…

A

evolutionarily ancient; available to rats, pigeons, and monkeys; available to human infants and adults; continuous throughout the lifespan

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8
Q

experiment judging numerosity

A

quickly flash two images of varying numbers of dots; participants had to judge which image had more dots
OR
quickly flashing an image of dots; participants had to estimate how many dots there were
BOTH WERE SUCCESSFUL

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9
Q

large number representations in adults

A

1) the ratio signature –> representations are approximate
2) representations are abstract –> cross-modal comparisons are about as easy as visual comparisons
3) representations enter into arithmetic computations –> addition and subtraction

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10
Q

the ratio signature

A

the discriminability between two numerosities; depends on the ratio

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11
Q

ratio signature and judging numerosity experiment (signature 1)

A

two images are flashed quickly with different numbers of dots; participants will be more accurate the greater the disparity between the amount of dots in the images

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12
Q

representations are abstract experiment (signature 2)

A

participants flashed an image of dots and then presented auditorily with a certain number of tones; told to determine which had more; participants still performed well

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13
Q

representations enter into arithmetic computations experiment (signature 3)

A

participants shown two images and a separate third image; asked if the addition of the first two images is less or more than the third image; participants performed estimations well

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14
Q

large number representations in infants

A

habituate the infant to several different images that each contain 8 dots; then, present the infant an image of 16 dots; infant will stare longer at the image of 16 dots because it is a new number of dots

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15
Q

critical ratio for infants vs. for adults

A

infants = 2.0
adults = 1.15
suggests ratios are learned to a certain extent

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16
Q

two possibilities as to why the ratio may decline with age

A

1) experience with symbolic numbers –> counting and mathematics education
2) maturation and non-specific experience –> development of visual acuity

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17
Q

study by Xu and Arriaga (2003)

A

suggests maturation and non-specific experience decreases the ratio because generally do not really teach an infant anything about numbers between 6 and 9 months

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18
Q

signature 2 (abstraction) in infants

A

habituation of head orientation toward a sound source (Lipton’s task); two speakers on either side; present 8 tones until the infant gets bored; during the test, the infant is presented with 8 tones again or 16 tones; infant will orient their head toward the 16 tones because it is new

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19
Q

signature 3 (arithmetic operations) experiment

A

infants presented with a screen displaying five objects that drop down from the top of the screen to the bottom; then, an occluder rises to cover the objects; five additional objects emerge from the side and go behind the occluder; the occluder drops to reveal either five objects or ten objects; results found that the infants looked longer when the occluder dropped to reveal five objects because they were surprised; similar results for same experiment but with subtraction

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20
Q

infant number representation

A

display all three signatures of number representation that adults do; before they learn counting or symbolic arithmetic, infants represent and discriminate large numerical magnitudes; number representations are approximate and show a signature ratio limit; precision of numerical discrimination increases over infancy, similar to other perceptual functions

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21
Q

testing number representation in non-human animals

A

Skinner rat experiment: trained rats to press a lever to receive food pellets; rat learns how many lever presses it takes to receive the food; deviation slightly from the desired amount of presses on average; deviation grew as the number of presses increased; shows a ratio limit

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22
Q

Tamarin monkeys and number representation

A

habituate monkeys to a certain number of tones; at the test phase, either present the monkey with the same number of tones or a different number; if the monkey is surprised they’ll go to the side of the cage where the tone came from and make a fuss; ratio limited; similar to what a 9-month-old human infant can do with number representations and tones (similar ratio signatures)

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23
Q

Capuchin monkeys and number representations

A

put two capuchin monkeys side-by-side and have them both complete the same task then give them both cucumbers; repeat the same procedure but one monkey gets grapes and the other gets cucumber; monkey that got the cucumber becomes upset; shows the monkeys understand unequal pay; understanding ratios on a social level

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24
Q

abstract number representations in non-human animals

A

place a rat in a box with two levers; trained to know that if the light flashes twice, they should hit the left level but if the light flashes eight times, they should hit the right lever –> receive food; if the light flashes twice, 10% of the time the rat will press the correct lever; if the light flashes four times, 50% of the time the rat will press the correct lever; if the light flashes eight times, 90% of the time the rat will press the correct lever; same procedure but with tones found the same findings; evidence for cross-modal transfer/abstraction

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25
Q

Island of Cayo Santiago experiment with 800 wild monkeys

A

show the monkeys a box, drop two lemons into the box, then drop a third into the box, then show that there are three total in the box –> monkey is bored; show the monkeys a box, drop two lemons into the box, then drop two more lemons into the box, then show that there are three lemons total in the box –> monkey is surprised; shows that wild monkeys can innately do addition and subtraction

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26
Q

large number representations in non-human animals

A

represent large, approximate numerosities; the same ratio and cross-modal signatures as those of human infants and adults

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27
Q

the Parahã

A

semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers in lowland Amazon; no external representations (writings, art, toys, etc.); only have words that mean “one”/”a few”, “two”/”some”, and “many”; experimenter gave participants a piece of paper with 1 tally, 2 tallies, 3 tallies, 4 tallies, and 5 tallies; told to recreate each set of tallies; difficulty recreating the tallies past 3 and impossible past 6; found they are not capable of representing large exact numbers; one of the only cultures known that does not have exact number representation (because their culture does not need it)

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28
Q

24 months

A

start counting

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29
Q

30 months

A

understand the meaning of “one,” but think all other number words mean “plural” or “some”

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30
Q

36 months

A

understand the meaning of “two” but think all other number words mean “more than two”

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31
Q

40 months

A

understand the meaning of “three,” but think all other number words mean “more than three”

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32
Q

45 months

A

children figure out that +1 in the count list means one more object in a set

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33
Q

understanding of positive integers

A

does not come until 45 months of life

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34
Q

origins of natural number

A

primate heritage, human evolution

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35
Q

primate heritage

A

representations of objects; approximate number representations; singular/plural; serial order

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36
Q

human evolution

A

explicit symbol system (words); conceptual change capabilities; analogy, inference to best explanation

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37
Q

Bruce and Young (1986) model

A

view-centered description, expression-independent description, face recognition unit, person identity node, name generation, cognitive system, expression analysis, facial speech analysis, directed visual processing

38
Q

view-centered description

A

viewpoint specific representations used for expression analysis

39
Q

expression-independent description

A

characteristics of a face independent of expression used for recognition

40
Q

face recognition unit

A

a separate unit for each face

41
Q

person identity node

A

recognize people based on other features aside from the face such as names or voices or body posture

42
Q

name unit

A

activate to retrieve person’s name

43
Q

expression analysis

A

provides information about person’s emotional state

44
Q

facial speech analysis

A

analysis of movements by the lips and tongue which helps (or possibly hinder) perception of speech by person

45
Q

directed visual processing

A

vague in terms of what it does, but best described as how attention is selective and purposeful in analyzing the appearance of a face

46
Q

cognitive system

A

various cognitive systems related to face processing, but not unique to processing faces

47
Q

constraints on face processing

A

-first-order relational properties –> faces share basic configuration
-second-order relational properties –> individual faces differ
-visual system assumes faces are lit from above
-negative photos make faces difficult to recognize
-visual system uses 3D shape information
-line drawings with no shading make it difficult to recognize faces

48
Q

inversion effect

A

rotates face upside down

49
Q

Thatcher illusion

A

rotate faces but invert eyes and mouth

50
Q

composite face effect

A

combine top and bottom of two faces to create one

51
Q

caricatures

A

easily recognizable, proportions must remain consistent

52
Q

horizontal sensitivity

A

faces are like bar-code structures; large scale patterns (where eyes should be); finer-scale stripes (structure of the eye); explains the inversion effect and negative effect; faces have distinctive vertical pattern of light and dark regions

53
Q

horizontal sensitivity and the inversion effect

A

the barcode is in the wrong order

54
Q

negative effect

A

face light strips are where dark strips should be and vice versa

55
Q

experiment testing if face processing is innate

A

hold up a paddle to a baby that has basic face shapes (three boxes for the two eyes and a mouth); camera above viewing the infant; present the paddle directly in front of the infant’s face then move the paddle slowly to the side; analyze how far the infant is wiling to turn their head towards the paddle; results: infants rotates their head the most for the face paddle , rotated their head the least for the linear paddle, rotated their head slightly for the config and scrambled paddles; infants have an innate template of the human face

56
Q

how specific is the facial processing template for infants?

A

look longer at upright faces the upside-down ones; look longer at top-heavy configurations of faces then bottom-heavy configurations; infants look longer at top-heavy configurations than an upright face; very specific

57
Q

experiment with primates if experience shapes face recognition

A

infant monkeys with no previous exposure to faces; preferential looking technique; results: infant monkeys had a preference for human and monkey faces despite never seeing either before and can distinguish between human and monkey faces; after 1 month of exposure to human or monkey faces (only one or the other) –> selectively discriminated exposed species of faces, difficulty discriminating other non-exposed species of faces

58
Q

face processing in canines

A

placed dogs in MRIs and analyzed brain patterns in reaction to viewing faces; ventral-posterior region activated for faces but not objects

59
Q

face processing summary

A

face processing is innate; infants only a few hours old will follow faces; non-humans process faces similarly to humans; face processing is neurologically specific

60
Q

human sociality

A

community members cooperate; accomplish tasks that cannot be performed alone in a group; members assume different roles and develop specialized skills; exceeds other animals

61
Q

human groups vs. animal groups

A

non-human animal groups all only have one characteristic of human groups; humans have a combination of all of the individual characteristics across the different groups of animals

62
Q

community members share…

A

language, food production, tools and technology, music, dance, games, belief systems, rituals

63
Q

structure of social networks

A

form longstanding, non-reproductive unions (friends); influence one another; transportation and communication through technology has changed social networks; institutions influence and have changed the structures of social networks; population density influences social strcutures

64
Q

social networks can be predictable

A

number of social ties, likelihood two friends of a person turn into friends, popular people tend to befriend other popular people, similar people tend to form ties

65
Q

social groups across cultures

A

each have language, nationality, and sports

66
Q

social groups across cultures

A

each have language, nationality, and sports

67
Q

social groups across cultures

A

each have language, nationality, and sports

68
Q

ingroups vs. outgroups

A

tend to view outgroups as homogenous (all are the same); tend to view ingroups as heterogenous (diverse)

69
Q

three mechanisms used to identify members of our social group

A

familiarity, categories marked in culture, evolutionary-ancient “coalition tracker”

70
Q

familiarity mechanism experiment

A

familiarize participants with many photographs of faces; present old and new faces after familiarization; ask participants two questions: Have you seen this face before? and How much do you like this person?; results found participants to have a preference for faces seen previously, even for faces not consciously recognized

71
Q

familiarity preferences in infants

A

two choice task where infant is presented with two images and measure based on looking time; African American and white babies were given the two choice task of faces of African Americans or white people; babies tended to look longer at the face that fits their race

72
Q

experiment looking at how people focus on social distinctions marked by other people in their culture

A

have participants take a numerical estimation test; randomly assign participants to two groups –> overestimators and underestimators; money given to participants and give them the task to distribute the money to other participants; greater giving to members of their own group

73
Q

implicit attitudes in children vs. adults

A

no explicit pro-white attitude in adults; explicit pro-white attitude in children; declines over time with age; children learn not to be explicit with their preferences

74
Q

categories that innately make sense to us

A

biological sex –> because it leads to reproduction; age –> because we look so different at different ages and social status

75
Q

encoding alliances is sensitive to two things

A

1) patterns –> coordinated action, cooperation, competition
2) cues that predict –> purposeful, incidental

76
Q

automatic encoding in coalitions

A

race is not automatically encoded; sex is automatically encoded

77
Q

purposes of humor

A

entertainment, influence (other people), good for well-being, coping mechanism, may assist in mate selection

78
Q

humor is…

A

broad, multifaceted, what people say or do, involves context, involves laughter, involves mental processes, emotional response, cross-culturally universal

79
Q

three components to humor

A

cognitive-perceptual process, emotional response, behavioral response

80
Q

two processes activated in the cognitive-perceptual process

A

perception of incongruity and appraisal of incongruity

81
Q

incongruity

A

ironically not in harmony

82
Q

cues necessary for perception of humor

A

signal the nonserious status; temporarily abandon logic and expectations

83
Q

emotional response

A

no agreement what the exact emotion invoked by humor is; mirth is the current “champion”

84
Q

behavioral response

A

-laughter
-exists on a spectrum –> smiling, grinning, chuckling, loud guffaws
-body response –> reddening of face, throwing back head, rocking of body, tears
-communicative state –> playful state, induce state in others

85
Q

motivational states

A

telic state, paratelic state

86
Q

telic state

A

serious and sensible; behave in ways to reach goals

87
Q

paratelic state

A

spontaneous and playful; focus on present; seek excitement; engage in activities for fun

88
Q

cognitive synergy

A

activation of two contradictory interpretations; created by incongruity; causes stimulus to be perceived as less important, dignified, serious, and valuable

89
Q

cognitive synergy example

A

A businessman has just completed registering at a hotel desk and as he turns to leave, he says to the clerk, “Oh, and I thought I should mention that I prefer that the porn channel on the room television be disabled.”
The clerk replies, “We only have regular porn… you sick bastard!”
Two synergies: businessman wants it disconnected, clerk provides reinterpretation of “disabled”

90
Q

arousal enhancing elements in humor

A

surprise, sex, taboo, disgust

PSYC 339: Origins of the Mind (4 decks)

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