Midterm 3 Flashcards
(217 cards)
1
Q
The behaviourist answer for how children acquire grammar so quickly and easily
A
Verbal behaviour - they can hear the language around them, they reproduce it and get reinforced
2
Q
What is the limitation to the verbal behaviour theory for children’s language acquisition
A
Children can generate things they have not heard (new sentences or errors in speech)
3
Q
Linguistic answer of language comprehension (Chomsky) in that language is “special”. What is special in the body about speech
A
There are regions in the brain that are specialized to deal with language
4
Q
Only _____ readily learn grammar
A
humans > can teach other animals to speak (can grow vocab) but they do not learn language
5
Q
What is the evidence that children are predisposed to to learning language (language seems innate)
A
Children develop linguistic communication with little or no language input
6
Q
Critical period for learning language
A
If you are not exposed to language by a certain point in development, the window of being able to acquire a language can never fully develop
7
Q
When seems to be the cut off for the critical period of language
A
Sometime between 5 and puberty (closer to puberty)
8
Q
In children who are born deaf and grow up in homes where the parents do not know sign language, what is the finding about language acquisition
A
The later the exposure to language, the more difficult it is to teach them language
9
Q
What does second-language learners teach us about critical periods of language?
A
Looked at age of exposure and language proficiency In general, the older you were when you were exposed to the second language, the less proficient you were
10
Q
It is not how long you were exposed to your second language that is important for proficiently in that language, but the _______ of exposure
A
age
11
Q
The cognitive answer for why children acquire language so quickly
A
There is nothing special about language that makes it different type fo learning. It is just a powerful but GENERAL cognitive growth
12
Q
The social interaction answer for why children acquire language so quickly
A
A combination of environment and cognitive skills but with a focus on social interactions driving language
13
Q
The function of emotions is that they help us adapt to our environment. What are 3 of these specific adaptations
A
- Fear leads to avoiding danger (increase attention) 2. Happiness strengthens relationships 3. Disgust keeps people away from things that make them ill
14
Q
________ and ________ emotions is an important part of social interactions
A
Understanding and displaying
15
Q
6 elements of emotional intelligence
A
- motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustration 2. Control impulses and delay gratification 3. Identify and understand own/ other’s feelings 4. Regulate own mood 5. Regulate expression of emotion in social interactions 6. Empathize others’ emotions
16
Q
Summary of emotional intelligence
A
Awareness of emotions self and others regulate emotion and manage emotional expression
17
Q
Basic emotions 3
A
Universal consist of a : subjective feeling, physiological change overt behaviour
18
Q
8 basic emotions
A
- joy - anger - surprise - interest - disgust - distress - sadness - fear
19
Q
What types of emotions are newborns said to feels
A
Pleasure and distress
20
Q
When do babies start to feel all the basic emotions
A
8-9 months
21
Q
How can we tell when infants begin to feel the basic emotions
A
Look at physiological reactions and facial expressions
22
Q
What is the first clear sign of a baby feeling happiness
A
smiling
23
Q
The meaning of infants smiles ______
A
change
24
Q
Rudimentary smiles are in response to what?
A
Full stomach or a gentle touch
25
What causes rudimentary smiles
Causes by internal factors
26
Are rudimentary smiles social?
No, they are internally driven
27
When does the social smile emerge
as early as 6-7 weeks
28
What are social smiles most often caused by
interacting with a main caregiver
29
When do children start to smile and laugh during activities
about 3 or 4 months
30
At 7 months, babies smile the most at what?
Familiar faces
31
When do children start to enjoy making others laugh?
About 2 years
32
What is the first discernible negative emotion
generalized distress
33
What negative emotions are hard to tell apart
Anger and sadness is young children
34
Anger emerges from what emotion
Distress
35
When does anger typically emerge
4-6 months
36
What is the cause of infant's anger that causes the emergence
Babies are not developing a goal. Anger emerges from people interfering in their goals
37
As infants gain control, they react negatively to:
to the loss of control
38
Fear emerges at what age
6 months
39
What is usually the trigger of fear in babies
Stranger wariness: in response to unknown adults
40
4 factors that affect the severity of stranger wariness
1. Caregiver's behaviour (pos vs neg interaction with stranger) 2. Stranger's behaviour (calm, gentle approach) 3. Infant separation from caregiver (how close care giver is) 4. Familiarity of setting
41
The cognitive developmental approach to how stranger wariness develops
- Outgrowths of cognitive and perceptual development - Stable schemas for familiar caregivers (unfamiliar faces now become frightening)
42
Evolutionary approach to why stranger wariness develops
Adaptive to fear strange people and situations since they often signaled danger
43
Separation anxiety
When children get distressed or distraught when the child is separated from the primary care giver
44
When does separation anxiety appear
Increases from 8-14 months, and then begins to decrease
45
How does separation anxiety vary depending on context
Who does the leaving - parent leaves = more anxiety - child leaves = less anxiety
46
Self conscious emotions (5)
complex emotions, such as shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, and pride
47
when does self-consciousness emerge
between 18-24 months of age
48
What 2 things is the emergence of self consciousness linked to?
1. Development of a "sense of self" 2. Recognition of adult standards
49
The Rouge Test of Self-Recognition
The researchers will put a mark on the child's forehead without the child knowing. Then they will put them in front of a mirror. If the child recognizes that it is them self in the mirror, then it is assumed that they have gained a sense of self
50
During the preschool years, what emotions do children demonstrate when they do something wrong
shame or guilt
51
Further development results in what 2 other more complex emotions
Regret and relief \>\> Children need to be able to think of possible outcomes to feel these emotions
52
Individualist cultures feel pride when?
When your yourself accomplish something
53
Collectivist cultures feelings of pride
Pride is at the group level
54
When can infants identify facial expressions associated with different emotions
by 4-6 months
55
How do we know that infants have acquired the ability to recognize emotions
**Emotional matching** of the people around them \> If someone around them makes an angry face, the baby might start crying
56
Social referencing
In unfamiliar or ambiguous environments, infants will looks to caregiver for cues to interpret the situations
57
When does social referencing emerge?
9-12 months
58
Study where infants can use emotional cues from strangers as well
- 14 and 18 month olds \> Were looking at whether the babies would look to the researchers for emotional cues for how to proceed - 2 opaque boxes with objects concealed inside - One box = experimenter displays happy expression - Other box = experimenter displayed a disgust expression Results: Infant will interact with the box that had the positive emotion more than the disgust box
59
Children's _________ of emotions becomes more complex as their cognitive skills develop
understanding
60
In kindergarden children understand _____ emotion
simple
61
At what age do people start understanding that people can feel complex and MIXED emotions
8 years
62
Display rules
What based on?
These are **informal**, **culturally**-specific _guidelines_ about what emotions are *appropriate* for a given **situation**,
*based on* the **occasion**, and/or the **people** there
63
What are the biggest sources in learning the display rules
families
64
4 abilities that are needed to appropriately regulate our emotions. We need to manage:
- Feelings - Physiological reactions associated with feelings - Emotion-related cognition (thoughts about how the situation producing the emotion should be interpreted) - Emotion-related behaviour (facial expressions)
65
When does regulation of emotions begin?
4-6 month olds
66
What is the typical response for regulating emotions for 4-6 month olds
-They will look away when they encounter something frightening or confusing - They will move towards caregiver when afraid
67
Children who have difficulty regulating their emotions tend to have problems with:
their peers
68
Across the early years, in terms of regulating emotions, there is an increase in: 4
- ability to rely on themselves - use language - maturation of the neurological system - adult's expectations of what the child can manage on their own
69
What do younger children usually do to manage their emotions
Use behaviour strategies --\> distracting themselves with play
70
What do older children usually do to manage their emotions
Employ cognitive strategies --\> mentally distracting themselves from the neg events or trying to see things in a positive light
71
Temperament
**Biologically** based behavioural **styles**
**Stable** across situations/time
Relating to:
* **intensity** of emotional reactions
* **activity** level
* **regulation** of emo and attn
72
Thomas and Chess did a longitudinal study and determined how many dimensions of temperament
nine
73
Attention span and persistence temperament dimension
amount of time devoted to an activity, such as watching a mobile of playing with a toy
74
How many general temperaments
3
75
3 main temperament styles
Easy child Difficult child Slow to warm up child
76
What % of children have easy temperament
~40%
77
Difficult temperament
Has less predictable schedules, withdraws from new situations, and reacts intensely to stimuli
78
What % of children have difficult temperaments
~10
79
Slow to warm up child
Often unhappy, but they adapt more quickly than "difficult" category
80
What % of children have slow to warm up temperaments
~15%
81
Which temperament style typically displayed more behavioural problems later on in childhood and sometimes adulthood
Difficult
82
Rothbart argues in favour of a model of 3 dimensions of temperament. What are the 3 dimensions
1. Surgency/Extraversion: happy, explorative, active 2. Negative Affect : reactivity, soothability, degree to demonstrate negative emotions 3. Effortful Control: degree to which they can stay focused
83
Both ______ and ______ affect temperament
genes and environment
84
Evidence for an environmental influence of temperament (2)
- Infants are more likely to develop intense, difficult temperaments when caregivers are abrupt and lack confidence - Sensitive to parenting beneficial
85
Goodness of fit (temperament)
Optimizing development by adapting parenting style to child's temperament in sensitive manner.
86
Temperament is ______ stable through infancy, childhood and adolescence
moderately
87
What 2 things does temperament predict (moderately predictive)
Children's cognitive and social functioning
88
What was concluded from the Harry Harlow with baby monkeys who were secluded
Healthy social and emotional development is rooted in early social interactions with adults --\> attachment is very important
89
Bowlby's Attachment Theory
Attachment is the enduring social-emotional relationship, typically between an infant and the primary caregiver
90
Secure Base
attachment figure's presence that provided young children a sense of security that makes environmental exploration possible
91
Biological perspective for attachment theory
Children are seen as biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival
92
4 stages of attachment
1. Pre-attachment (0-6 weeks) 2. Attachment in the making (6 weeks - 8 months) 3. True attachment (8 - 18 months) 4. Reciprocal Relationships (18 months +)
93
Pre-attachment stage
Reflexes and cues to keep caregiver nearby or to call them
94
Attachment in the making stage (3)
- Babies begin to **differentiate** between familiar caregivers and strangers
- Babies show more **positive** responses to familiar care givers
- Babies begin to develop a sense of **trust** in the caregivers
95
True attachment stage (5)
- Attachment figure has been identified as special - proximity seeking - separation anxiety - stranger wariness - attachment figure serves as a safe base from which to explore
96
Reciprocal relationships stage (2)
- Cognitive/language developments enable better understanding and predicting of caregiver's behaviour - mutual relation emerges and relationship anxiety decreases
97
Strange situation attachment task to assess infant's reaction to separation and reunion with primary care giver
There is a primary caregiver, and infant, and a stranger in a room. The primary caregiver leaves and the infant's response is measured. The primary caregiver comes back and they look at the reunion response is recorded
98
2 main categories of attachment
Secure Insecure (three types)
99
3 Insecure attachments
1. Resistant (or ambivalent)
2. Avoidant
3. Disorganized/disoriented
100
Separation and reunion of children with secure attachment
Separation: baby is often upset Reunion: baby is calmed by caregiver, seeks them out
101
Secure base with secure attachment?
Do use primary caregiver as secure base
102
% of middle class children are classified as securely attached
60-65%
103
Resistant (or ambivalent) attachment during separation and reunion
Separation: baby is upset Reunion: beby cannot be calmed by caregiver, resists them
104
Exploration in resistant attachment
Children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than explore the environment
105
Avoidant attachment during separation and reunion
Separation: baby seems to be fine Reunion: baby actively ignores caregiver
106
Child's reaction to the primary caregiver
seem indifferent to them
107
Who can comfort avoidant children when they are distressed
they are just as comforted by the stranger than by the parent
108
Disorganized/disoriented attachment during the separation and reunion
Separation: baby is confused Reunion: baby is confused
109
Behaviours of disorganized/disoriented children
Their behaviour is often confused or even contradictory, and then often appear dazed or disoriented
110
Larger internal working model of attachment (future implications of attachment)
Children develop a mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general
111
What is a big factor in the quality of the attachment formation
Parental sensitivity
112
What is parental sensitivity (2)
1 Consistently **responsive** caregiving when children are **distressed**/upset
2. Helping children to engage in **learning** situations by providing an appropriate amount of **guidance** and supervision
113
Study that shows the causal relationship between parental sensitivity and the formation of good quality relationships
- parents were nominated because they were having difficulty - half of parents were given training in how to be more sensitive to children - tracked children across development Results: the group that got the training had higher quality of relationships with their children (secure)
114
4 benefits of secure attachment
1. Closer relationships with peers 2. More relationships and better emotional health 3. Perform better in school 4. More prosocial behaviour
115
Attachment style is fairly \_\_\_\_\_\_
stable
116
When can attachment change for the worse
With major negative life events
117
When can attachment change for the better
When parents "grow" into their role, and have strong social support, or receive training
118
Self concepts
Refers to a conceptual system made up of one's thoughts and attitudes about oneself
119
What are things that are typically included in the self concept (3)
- Physical being and behaviours - Social roles and relationships - Spiritual/political/internal characteristics
120
Are we born with a concept of self?
No
121
When does a sense of self emerge? What happens to them at this time
2 to 4 months \>They begin to distinguish themselves from the external environment
122
At around 3-5 months of age, what aspect of self emerges
they seem to have some sense of their own bodily movements
123
early notions of the self are relatively \_\_\_\_\_\_
simplistic
124
When do children seem to pass the mirror self recognition task and the shopping cart test
18-20 months
125
When do self-conscious emotions, and language use emerge that indicate self awareness
24 months
126
When do children start recognizing themselves in a photograph
30 months
127
When does autobiographical memory emerge. Why is this?
about 3 or 4 \> we have to have a sense of self as a binding agent for the memories
128
An expression of ownership is linked to the development of what?
The realization that the self is extended across time. The me that I am now is the me that I will be in the future and have been in the past
129
Who contributes to the children's self image
Parents through what they say "you're so fast"
130
Once self-awareness has been developed, children start to develop a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
self-concept
131
Things that are included in the self concept of 3-4 year olds (3)
More concrete - Observable characteristics related to physical attributes and abilities - Possessions - Preferences
132
There is cultural variability in how cultures represent their self concepts. How is collectivist cultures different in their description of the self
Social and family relationships, their role in larger groups
133
Things that are included in middle childhood conceptions of self (4)
- **Psychological traits** (smart)
- Social **groups** (soccer team)
- Include social **comparisons**
- More influenced by social **relationships**
134
Self concept in adolescence becomes more complex, and is (5)
1. - Abstract
2. - Attitudes
3. - Ideological *beliefs*
4. - Variability depending on *context* and who is around
5. - Awareness of their _future selves_
135
During adolescence, which of Erikson's stages needs to be resolved
Identity vs Identity Crisis
136
Success in searching for your identity leads to
Strong sense of self and the ability to face adulthood with certainty and confidence
137
What reasons have been proposed for why the search for identity happens during adolescence (4)
1. - **formal** **operational** thinking develops
2. - Start to see self as having a **stable** **personality**
3. - A more systematic and **integrated** **sense** of self
4. - **Societal** **pressures** them to become useful contributors
138
What is common during the time of the search for identity
Adolescent egocentrism
139
3 pieces of evidence for adolescent egocentrism
1. Imaginary audience 2. The personal fable 3. The illusion of invulnerability
140
Imaginary Audience
You assume that the things that you are doing are being watched and judged by others
141
The personal fable
The story of themselves as being completely unique, no one else has had these experiences
142
The illusion of invulnerability
The dangerous things that can happen to other people would not happen to them, they will be ok
143
James Marcia's proposed 4 dynamic phases that expands on Erikson's adolescent stage def
2x2 Factors - We are either trying to explore our options, or we have not - We have either made a commitment, or we have not
144
Marcia's 4 stages
Identity achievement Moratorium Identity Diffusion Identity Foreclosure
145
Identity Achievement
They finished exploring have have committed to a particular identity \> High exploration and High commitment
146
What phase is the completion of the moratorium status
Identity achievement
147
Identity moratorium
Low commitment, High exploration - Experiencing a crisis and searching for an identity
148
Identity Foreclosure
High commitment, Low exploration - Can be the result of just following in other's footsteps \>can lead to resentment
149
Identity Diffusion
Low commitment, Low exploration - Individual may not think about a particular identity unless faces with a crisis or are somehow compelled to adopt one
150
Individuals do _____ necessarily reach the achievement status for all areas of their lives at the same time
not
151
what 2 things can help adolescents achieve an identity
- discussion with parents (who are supportive) - discussion with peers
152
Self control
the ability to control one's **behaviour** and to inhibit **impulsive** responding to temptation
153
Self control is seen as an important first step to ______ behaviour
moral
154
What other concept is self control very similar to?
Inhibitory control (delay of gratification)
155
When does self control begin to emerge?
In the pre-school years
156
Approximate chronology of self control from 1-3
Around 1: aware that others impose demands Around 2: have internalized some controls Around 3: capable of self-regulation
157
Changes in what type of tasks shows the development of self control across childhood
delay of gratification tasks
158
Lemmon and Moore Sticker Delay Task
- 3 and 4 year old - Children can either put a sticker in their book or in an envelope to use later - Children had a choice between an immediate (book) and delayed (envelope) gratification - Choices: 1 now vs 2/3/4/5 later (three times each) \> Looking to see how the children weighed their options and what it took for them to want to delay gratification Results: The 3 year old choose now most of the time. The 4 year olds will choose later more often when the reward is higher Interpretation: 3 year olds cannot really engage in self control. 4 year old can selectively choose self control, when it is worth it enough
159
As children get older, they can handle ________ delays
Longer
160
Stability of self control
The ability to maintain self-control is fairly consistent over other situations and across time
161
What is a major environmental influence in a child's self control
parenting style
162
Inductive reasoning parenting style
-Explaining the situation to the child - Encouraging them to think through the situation and reason on their own
163
Power assertion patenting style
No explanation, "because I said so"
164
Which parenting style is more likely to enhance self control
Inductive reasoning
165
What child characteristic influences self control
Temperament
166
Parents with better ________ are more likely to have children with more self control
self control
167
Children have _____ self control when parents are very strict
less
168
What type of emotional expression related with low self control
high emotionality
169
Children who are naturally fearful are more likely to comply with rules why?
Because they are afraid of the world, not necessarily because of control
170
Children who are not naturally fearful also respond to parents requests to cooperate based on what
Based on attachment relationship
171
What factors in a culture promote more self control
Cultures where cooperation and self-restraint are highly valued
172
What internal thing can help children improve their self control
When children have concrete ways of handling tempting situations are better at resisting temptation (appropriate self-instruction and diversion help)
173
3 strategies that adults can use to help children develop self-control
1. Keep in mind the long term goal 2. Reduce the attraction of the tempting option 3. Developing 'if-then' plans
174
The _______ behind a behaviour is critical for determining whether a given behaviour is moral or immoral
reasoning (intent)
175
At first, children's understanding of moral rules start off ______ and change to be more _______ when they get older
rigid flexible
176
In what context did Piaget first observe the morality of children (2)
- Watched them play games - Conducted open-ended interviews using vignettes and asking children for judgement
177
What did Piaget look for when he conducted the moral interviews using the vignettes
The reasoning behind the moral judgement that children gave
178
What was the moral judgement of the vignettes based on with younger children according to Piaget
The outcome (not the intention)
179
With younger children, there is _________ when they judge the morality and punishment of a situation
Inconsistency
180
Current research finds that at 3-4 yo, children do not understand that actions need to be carried out __ \_\_\_ ____ \_\_\_\_\_ to count as intentional
"In the right way"
181
For younger children, actions that bring about the desired outcome are judged as \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Intentional
182
Children's moral judgements are often tied to the _____ of the outcome
Valence (good vs bad)
183
Piaget, children between 2 and 4 moral stage
Premoral stage - believe that adult authority is absolute
184
Piaget children between 5 and 7 moral stage
Moral Realism stage - Rules must be followed and cannot be changes - Breaking a rule always leads to punishment (immanent justice) \> Rules are seen as external features
185
Does the immanent justice need to happen immediately?
No, for children if they break the rules, if something bad happens to them later they attribute it to their earlier rule breaking, even if unrelated
186
In the moral realism stage, evaluation of acts is based on what
Outcome rather than intentions
187
Piaget moral stage between 8-10
Moral Relativism: - Understand that rules are created by people to help them get along
188
Moral relativism and autonomous morality
Children understand that free will is an important consideration when judging morality
189
In the moral relativism stage, moral judgement evaluation is based on what
Intention more than outcome
190
Piagets 3 moral stages
Premoral Moral Realism Moral Relativism
191
3 challenges to Piaget's moral stages
- Children **don't** actually treat adults as an **absolute** authority in the preschool years
- Children even as young as 4 and 5 yo **consider** **intentions** when judging behaviour
- In some circumstances, children can consider **intentions AND outcome** at age 5
192
Some recent research claims that understanding aspects of morality begins \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
much earlier
193
One study on moral reasoning argued that infants as early as _________ can understand something about intentions and engage in simple moral reasoning "good vs bad"
6-10 months
194
How did Kohlberg study moral reasoning across deveopment
Would present individuals with hypothetical moral dilemmas, and then question them about the reasons for their moral judgements
195
What aspect was Kohlberg particularly interested in in moral judgement
The reasoning behind the judgement
196
Which gender did Kohlberg's research mostly include
males
197
What was Kohlberg's claim about moral reasoning
It begins with obedience to authority and ends with decisions based on moral principles
198
Did Kohlberg acknowledge individual differences in moral judgements
No, he claimed universality of his stages
199
Kohlberg's 3 levels of moral reasoning
Pre conventional Conventional Post Conventional
200
Pre-conventional Level: reasoning controlled by (3)
Reasoning is controlled almost solely by
_obedience to authority_
and by *rewards and punishments*;
it is **self centred**
201
Stage one of the pre-conventional level
**Obedience Orientation:** You follow the rules because if you don't, you will get in trouble
202
Stage two of the pre-conventional level
I**nstrumental Orientation**: Judgements of right and wrong are influenced by benefits to the self
203
Conventional Level: decisions based on..
Decisions are based on **social norms** (*adults* and *adolescents*)
204
Stage 3 conventional
Interpersonal Norms Infl what ppl close you think
205
Stage 4 conventional
Social system morality o Follow rules which support the social system/social roles
206
Post-conventional level
- Moral decisions based on personal moral principles - Age: 25+, some adults
207
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
o act way social benefit, but sometimes need violate
208
- Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
o Abstract univ principles
209
Support for Kohlberg’s views moral reasoning
- Ppl progress stages in sequence - Older ppl higher stgs - Some support moral reasoning linked moral behav
210
Critiques Kohlberg’s views moral reasoning 2
- Gender bias: research based on **men**
- not **universal**: Cultural bias (western)
o MR reflects cultural values
o K suited western phil/religious traditions
o E.g. lie; ~take credit somthg do; collectivist cultures view more pos than indiv
211
What Gilligan’s critiques Kohlberg’s model
- Gilligan: justice more applicable men than women - Caring and responsibility others \> justice in MR
212
Gilligan’s model of dev MR
1. Kids start focused self/needs 2. Then start care others who need help 3. Care self and others, more focus caring all
213
Gilligan place emphasis on ____ while Kohlberg, on \_\_\_\_\_.
- Caring; justice
214
2 factors improve kids MR
- Discussions moral issues - Exposure higher levels reasoning
215
Why important discuss moral issues kids
- Help reasoning early as 5 - Inspire kids social chg
216
Explain Pellizzoni et al. 2010 trolley study with preschoolers
Participants: 3-5
Research ?: utilitarian moral judgement kids
Methods:
- Used kid friendly stories
- Direct ball; hurt 5 or divert and hurt 1
- Comprehension ?s ensure kids followed details
Results:
- No gender or age effects
- 87% majority John should act
217
Explain guessing game give evidence when kids start lie. What signify?
* - Guess toy box based on sounds
* - Odd sound, not match toy
* - Exp leave room. Tell kids no look, then return
* Ask kids what in box. If know:
* - Ask did peak? Lie or no
* - How know toy? Lie or no
* -Kids differ quality of explanations
* - Kids age 3 tell lies
* - Cog milestone ability recog mental state
