Midterm 3 Flashcards
(183 cards)
1
Q
p53 is a ________
A
tumor suppressor
transcription factor
no cancer cell has an in tact p53 pathway
2
Q
how is p53 induced?
A
stress signals such as hyperproliferative signals, dna damage, telomere shortening, and hypoxia induce stable, active p53 to induce cell-cycle arrest, senescence, and apoptosis
3
Q
roles of p53
A
tumor supressor
prevents proliferation of damaged cells by enforcing cell cycle checkpoints
if DNA damage is detected it initiates the DNA repair pathway
if damage/stress is prolonged or severe it promotes programmed cell death (apoptosis)
4
Q
p53 turns on gene that destroys itself, why?
A
so that in the absence of stress signals it is not present and doing its thing
5
Q
mdm2
A
ubiquitin ligase protein product of gene that ubiquitilizes p53
6
Q
what do stress signals do to keep p53 on?
A
they activate stress kinases that phosphorylate p53 which makes it so that mdm2 can’t ubiquitlate it
7
Q
cells that are p53 null and experience DNA damage _____
A
survive. this is bad because you want to see them get killed so they do not spread their damage
8
Q
In 50% of all human tumors, p53 is lost. What does this result in?
why are these cancers resistant to chemo?
A
There is no way to prevent damaged cells from proliferating because cell cycle arrest and apoptosis are p53 dependent
these cancers are resistant to chemotherapy and radiation because they are unable to stop replicating
9
Q
in unstressed (wild type) cells p53 protein is maintained at _______
A
very low levels. won’t come up on a western blot
10
Q
in stressed cells p53 protein _______
A
accumulates. stress kinases phosphorylate p53 which interferes with p53 binding to mdm2. it sends p53 into nucleus where it acts as a transcription factor and suppresses tumor
11
Q
how does phosphorylating p53 prevent mdm2 from ubiquitylating it?
A
alters the 3D shape of the mdm2 binding domain so that mdm2 can’t promote its degradation
12
Q
HCT 116
A
human colon cancer cell line. p53wt, mutant ras, and mutant B catenin
13
Q
CPT
A
camptothecin inhibits DNA topoisomerase, induces DNA breaks, triggers apoptosis. It is plant-derived, and a common chemotherapeutic
it is the stressor in the western blot on the slides
14
Q
alpha-Am
A
peptide toxin produced by mushrooms, it inhibits RNA polymerase which triggers p53 mediated apoptosis
in western blot it served as proof that p53 was phosphorylated in response to stress
15
Q
p21
A
broadest cdk inhibitor – it can arrest progression of the cell cycle no matter where we are in the cell cycle
16
Q
first thing p53 does
A
trans-activates p21, triggering cell cycle arrest
17
Q
p53 and mdm2 have ________ ________ interactions
A
mutually inhibitory;
when stress no longer exists there needs to be at least a little bit of mdm2 to degrade p53 when it should no longer be stabilized (basically as one increases the other decreases)
18
Q
most tp53 mutations are _________
A
missense mutations clustered in the DNA-binding domain
19
Q
why are mutations in the DNA binding domain bad for p53 function?
A
since p53 cannot bind to the DNA effectively it cannot promote the expression of genes required for cell cycle withdrawal, DNA repair, or programmed cell death
20
Q
what does it take to have a p53 mutant phenotype?
A
mutation in just one allele
21
Q
p53 mutations are ________
A
dominant negative or interfering alleles
22
Q
why are p53 mutations often dominant?
A
the odds that a tetramer contains on mutant subunit is extremely high. In a heterozygote only 1/16 of tetramers will have only wild type
23
Q
Outcome when:
1) two normal p53 genes
2) homozygous recessive mutation
3) Heterozygous recessive mutation
4) Dominant negative mutation
A
1) both copies produce normal p53 protein chains that form the final protein
2) no p53 protein chains are produced
3) the normal copy produces normal protein chains that form a functional p53 protein
4) mutant gene produces abnormal protein chain that may assemble with normal p53 chains in a way that prevents a functional p53 chain from coming out
24
Q
when you have overactive ras you also need ______ to form foci (bacterial cell transformation)
A
mutant p53
because you can’t just have an active oncogene to have its effect you need a defective tumor suppressor
25
Why do you need a mutant p53 (or more broadly tumor suppressor) to have successful oncogenic expression?
In wt cells oncogenic signaling up-regulates the transcription factor E2F which induces ARF.
ARF interferes with mdm2 so it leads to the stabilization of p53 and either arrest or apoptosis occurs
26
What is ARF induced by and what does it do?
induced by E2F and it interferes with mdm2 (sequesters it to the nucleolus) to stabilize p53 to cause arrest or apoptosis in defective cells
27
What does ARF stand for?
alternate reading frame
| product of p16 gene which is a CDK inhibitor via an alternate reading frame
28
_____ and _____ tumor supressor proteins are produced by one gene because of _________
p16 & ARF
an alternate reading frame
29
p16
cdk inhibitor that prevents phosphorylation of Rb (which would not be able to restrain passage through the cell cycle)
30
how does oncogenic signaling promote p53 stabilization/cell cycle arrest/apoptosis? (pathway)
oncogenic signalling (c-myc ras or e1a) induces e2d which induces arf which stabilizes p53 which promotes oncogene induced apoptosis
31
when do tumors develop?
after a lag when ARF (or p53) is lost
32
arf ______ develop tumors much faster than _______
heterozygotes; homozygous wt
33
oncogenic pathways want to _______
stabilize mdm2
so that it will destroy p53
34
tumor suppressor pathways want to _________
stabilize p53
it wants to inhibit mdm2 from destroying p53
35
stress signals want to _________
stabilize p53
36
oncogenic signals want to _________
promote the interaction between p53 and mdm2
37
anything that antagonizes p53 promotes _______
survival! NOT proliferation (which is going through the cell cycle)
38
anoikis
epithelial cells that lose their attachment to the ECM undergo apoptosis
39
laddering
nuclease is activated and cuts genomic DNA at the linker region between nucleosomes, producing a ladder of fragments
happens during apoptosis (so do blebs)
found using FACS
40
FACS
treat cells with fluorescent dye that shows you amount of DNA per cell
shows you which are apoptotic because you will see that they have smaller pieces of DNA that will leak . The greater % of cells with sub G1 content of DNA the more apoptotic
41
apoptosis & phospholipid bilayer
membrane has negative charge on inside of cell (phosphotidyl serine)
when apoptosis happens the membrane breaks up and these negative charges will be on outside. the green flourescent dye hits this and lights up
just green early apop
green and red on mem end
42
cytochrome c
in intermembrane space huge death effector that activates hydrolytic enzymes
43
how is cyt c let out of the mitochondria?
the opening and closing of pores. they can oligermize
anti apoptotic keep the pores closed
pro keep them open
44
Bcl2 proteins
some antagonize p53. some are pro apoptotic. all have similar structure but can antagonize one another
not a classic oncogene but has oncogenic activities. it is a survival protein.
45
bcl2 and bclxl are ______
anti apop
46
bax and bak
pro apop
makes the pores want to open
47
bad, bim, bid and puma and noxa
pro apop bh3 only
48
_____ proteins are the crucial link between the apoptotic stimuli and mitochondrial cytochrome C release
BH3
they distract the anti apoptotic proteins by binding them. this allows the other pro apop (bax and bak) but not BH3 only ones to open the pores
49
______ and _____ open the pores to let cyt c out
bax and bak
50
caspases
they have a cysteine in their active site and cleave target proteins at aspartic acid
51
what cascade is in charge of the apoptosis program
caspase. they hydrolyze the cell in a controlled and irreversible fashion
52
describe flow of caspase cascade in apop
initiator caspase cleave and activate executioner caspases which cleave key proteins
the first initiator caspase step is the one most closely regulated. all have to be cleaved to become active
53
how is the initiator caspase activated?
cyt c! has to come out of mitochondria and form a complex with apaf1 = the apoptosome. this promotes apop by activating the first initiator caspase
54
apoptosome
apaf1 + cyt c
55
bcl2 apop mech
bh3 only bcl proteins distract the anti apop bcl proteins allowing for bax and bak to open the pore to let cyt c out into the cytosol. this binds with apaf 1 and forms a complex to become the apoptosome. this activates the initiator caspase
56
IAPs
inhibitors of apop inhibit caspases and some polyubiquinate them
57
T or F: any cell that sustains a mutation in one p53 allele becomes p53 inactive
T
58
what does E6 viral protein do?
expressed by hpv it binds to p53 and promotes its degradation
59
ways to inactivate p53
```
degradation
sequestration
deregulation of mdm2
deregulated "survival signaling"
loss of stress kinases
```
60
sequestration
move the p53 to the cytoplasm/mess with its protein conformation so that it wont be let into the nucleus
61
cytoplasmic p53 is usually ______
wt
its just trapped where it cant do anything
62
nuclear p53 is usually ______
mutant
if you give a stressor like chemo it can kill cancer cells
63
why does deregulation of mdm2 inactivate p53?
it destroys p53
64
how does deregulated survival signaling inactivate p53?
messing with a piece of a pathway that impacts p53 in turn messes with p53
ex. if you delete PTEN, which down regulates the AKT pathway, you see an increase in AKT activity which increases mdm2 which impairs p53.
65
why would the loss of stress kinases impact the activity of p53?
p53 would not be active when there is a stress because mdm2 would be able to constantly degrade
ex no big brother to protect
66
mortal v immortal for cells
mortal = fixed number of growth cycles then they permanently stop dividing
immortal = infinite number of growth division cycle to acquire the successive genetic changes necessary for tumorigenesis
67
explain replicative potential at different stages of cell development
early in embryogenesis cells have unlimited replicative potential
when they commit to a cell lineage they get a pre-determined replicative potential
68
as organisms age their cells lose ____________
proliferative capacity
69
why is it that as organisms age their cells lose proliferative capacity?
it is a defense against cancer to ensure that a potentially neoplastic cell does not have enough replicative potential left to cause serious harm
70
Hayflick limit
he looked at cells from tissues from babies, adults, elderly and saw how long they would grow in the lab
what intuitively would be thought to happen happened
post serial passaging cells know when to stop dividing
71
primary cells vs cell lines
primary: direct from tissue
cell lines: meant to grow in lab. immortal but not normal cells because we selected for cells that grow regardless of stress
72
serial passaging
sub-confluent
reharvest cells and put them on fresh plate so that they aren't contact inhibited
73
senescence
permanent non-dividing state
| not even with a mitogen
74
what triggers senescence?
DNA damage, oxidative stress, chemotherapy, oncogenes
75
why is senescence good?
if you've been dividing for 60 years and so many fuck ups have happened its probably good that you dont replicate and pass on your shit
76
senescent cells still express __________ and need _____ to survive
growth factor receptors
growth factors
they just no longer proliferate in response to mitogenic signaling
77
Overexpression of CDKIs promote _________
CDKS _______ it
senescence
block
78
Stresses ______ CDKIs
upregulate
79
Explain how CDKIs promote senescence
stresses upregulate p16/p21 (CDKIs) which promote senescence
80
Levels of CDKIs _______ over time (aging)
increase
81
How do culture conditions of cells in the lab influence the onset of senescence?
epithelial cells grown on plastic see a dramatic increase in the amount of CDKI mRNA produced and stop dividing in comparison to epithelial cells grown on feeder fibroblasts
82
cells that have escaped/avoided senescence often have _________
overexpressed CDK 4 or inactivating mutations in p16 CDKI
83
what does the fact that cells that have avoided senescence often have overexpressed CDK4/inactivating mutations in p16 indicate?
senescence requires tumor suppressor activity
84
to avoid senescence ____ and ____ pathways must be inactivated
p53 and pRb
85
LT protein
DNA tumor virus protein that inactivates p53 and pRb
86
if you plate human kidney cells with LT protein, what happens?
cells continue to grow indefinitely
87
senescence associated beta galactosidase
can stain tissue with it and see how cells become more senescent over time
88
how does chromatin appear in growing versus senescent cells?
growing: chromatin is dispersed
senescent: chromatin is in discrete foci
89
SAHF
marker of senescene
stands for senescence associated heterochromatic foci. this requires Rb mediated chromatin remodeling of E2F target genes. Markers include H3K9me and Suv39h1 (histone methyl transferases
90
phenotype of senescent cells
increase lysosomal sa-B-galactosidase
chromatin structural changes SAHF
senescence associated secretory phenotype (SASP)
production of cytokines chemokines and growth factors
proteases that shed membrane bound receptors cleave or degrade signaling molecules and degrade or alter the ECM
91
why can senescence be bad for an organism?
when a cell becomes senescent it secretes cytokines chemokines and growth factors that can impact neighboring cells
autocrine and paracrine functions can occur that can be beneficial or detrimental
92
what autocrine and paracrine functions of a senescent cell are bad?
SASP of senescent cells can cause normal less to lose optimal function ---> tissue degradation
SASP can cause premalignant cells to proliferate and adopt more malignant phenotypes, leading to full blown cancer
93
telomeres
preserve the chromosome ends
tandem hexanucleotides repeats (thousands of them) and associated proteins
- repeats are different in each species thats kinda fun!
94
structure of telomere
double stranded region of telomeric DNA (5-10 kbp long)
single stranded 3' overhang of G-rich strand of telomeric DNA (several hundred bases long)
ss loops around into double stranded end. can be targeted in therapeutics
95
how do we know that telomeres shorten over cell proliferation?
we cut the DNA to be small enough to go into gel and do a southern blot. we see they get shorter as they divide
96
the end replication problem
telomeres shorten with each S phase
because of the whole okazaki fragment thing where we need the RNA primer to be put down lol so we lose 50-200 bp DNA at each 3 prime end
these aren't coding regions so they don't impact our actual genetic passing on in each division
97
what is the consequence of shortened telomeres?
eroded telomeres result in senescence which translates to aging in real life.
eventually when the telomores get so short and then we run out of telomeres they might do end to end fusion which causes senescence
98
what happens when telomeres shorten to the point of unprotection?
cell will try to fix this by fusing the ends of the sister chromatids together. BUT THIS IS BAD. because when you try to go through mitosis again the centromeres will split because now you essentially have two causing a second breakage. then a new nonhomologous chromsome can get nice and comfy and try to fuse with the weird crazy chromsome that results.
tldr these crazy weird chromosomes happen from breakage-fusion-bridge repeat cycles
99
dicentric chromsomes
when you have the fusion of the two ends to fix that the telomeres aren't there and the centrosome is still in tact
100
cancer cells escape crisis by expressing ________
telomerase
101
telomerase
an enzyme which elongates and regenerates telomeres
in normal tissue we have it during early embryogenesis but then it gets silenced
102
telomerase is elevated in _____ of human cancers
85-90%
103
you can override senescence/evade crisis by expressing ______
telomerase
104
if you introduce a dominant negative telomerase (means that it will out-express native telomerase) into cancer cells, what happens?
telomeres start to shorten and they eventually stop dividing
105
lag time correlates with _____
telomere length
106
telomerase activity and prognosis in pediatric cancer
better outcome is telomerase activity is negative
converse also true
107
in pediatric neuroblastoma, myc __________ telomerase
upregulates
myc is a transcription factor
the hTERT promoter has a myc recognition site
108
DCIS
ductal carcinoma in situ
tldr 15% of these bois become cancer and scientists can't tell which do. they have initiation but not completion of tumor development
details: larger number of pre malignant cells pass through results in considerable telomere erosion. they don't upreg telomerase, they seem like they are done (went into senescence
109
PIN
prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia
this is a precursor to prostatic carcinoma but many of the luminal epithelial cells lining the duct have lost telomeres while underlying basal epithelial cells have strong telomeric DNA signal
110
shortening telomere length to a crucial length is detected as ______
DNA damage which creates stress response which could be senescence or apoptosis
111
telomerase subunits
hTERT = human telomerase reverse transcriptase. synthesizes DNA from RNA template. has myc consensus sites that make it a transcriptional target of myc
hTR = human telomerase-associated RNA. RNA template that is required for it to work. Transfected with anti-sense and cells will lose telomeric DNA and begin to die after ~25 divisions
.
Processed in the spliceosome, previously thought to only process pre-mRNAs
112
how does telomerase work?
replaces telomeres
it extends the end that already has the overhang and then DNA polymerase uses the extended part as a primer to start replicating so we don't shorten
113
TRAP assay
measures telomerase activity. telomerase extends the existing hexanucleotide repeat which after pcr amplification gives the ladder of bands
trap = telomeric repeat amplification protocol
if telomerase is present then films/bands would appear
if telomerase isn't present then they would not
114
what does seeing hTERT mRNA in a northern blot indicate?
that the telomerase genes are being expressed
115
senescence requires ____ and ___
p53 & Rb
116
karotypic chaos
due to breakage fusion bridge
when crazy combo chromosomes occur because of BFB
117
TERT expression patterns
can be repressed or depressed if there are mutations in the regulatory region for the gene.
in normal cells it is unmethylated which favors repressor binding.
118
what else besides telomere related things do telomerases do?
took metastatic melanoma cells from mice and downregulated telomerase expression. they stop proliferating and redifferentiate into melanocytes.
gene expression regulation, cell proliferation, apoptosis, wnt/b catenin signaling, nf-kb signaling, oncogenisis (myc driven), cell adhesion, cell migration, angiogenesis, epithelial mesenchumal transition (emt)
119
promoter and reporter genes
promoters drive expression of reporter genes
120
how does telomerase modulate WNT signaling?
tldr telomerase helps stabilize b catenin
the promoters for wnt targets such as cyclin D1 and myc drive expression of a reporter gene luciferase.
licl stabilizes b catenin by inhibiting gsk3b tert increases the activity of both promoters
121
licl means _______
stabilize b catenin
122
how does telomerase help stabilize b catenin?
by associating with brg1 a chromatin remodeler that is involved in WNT signaling
use CHIP
BRG1 is a chromatin remodeler known to be involved in WNT signaling and known to form a
protein complex with TERT
b catenin tert and brg1 all occupy myc and cyclin D promoters after b catenin is stabilized by licl
123
CHIP = chromatin immunoprecipitation
see if transcription factors are binding to promoters
which proteins occupy a particular promoter
124
what did chip analysis show about telomerase
myc and cyclin d have MORE occupation when you have TERT and BRG1 (chromatin remodeling protein)
125
hallmarks of cancer
1) self sufficiency in growth signals
2) insensitivity to antigrowth signals
3) evasion of apoptosis
4) limitless replicative potential
5) sustained angiogenesis
6) tissue invasion and metastatis
126
cancer metabolism: how is it a different strategy than our normal?
only 1% of glucose will be oxidated all the way down to ATP.
they basically do non-oxidative phosphorylation to make all of the other shit that is necessary for many cells like amino acids fatty acids etc.
127
cancer cells express more ____ and _____ in comparison to normal cells
GLUT1 (glucose) and Pk-M2 which diverts pyruvate to LDH rather than PDH to do oxidative phosphorylation
128
Pk-m2
different pyruvate isoform that allows for all of this stuff to go into non-aerobic metabolism
but back up happens like
traffic where it goes slower
129
cancer incidence increases as we ___
age
130
___ increase in lung cancer smokers compared to non smokers
10 fold
131
relationship between cancer incidence and carcinogen exposure
duration of exposure determines onset, regardless of age. exposure raises rate of tumor progression orders of magnitude above spontaneous rate
132
histopathology provides evidence of _______
multi step tumor formation
133
in situ
in place
cancer didn't cross basal lamina yet and cannot infiltrate underlying tissue, enter bloodstream, or metastasize to distant sites
134
benign polyps are _______ to ________
precursors; dangerous invasive cancers
135
wide majority of cancers are result from ____
loss of apc
136
steps to colon cancer (apc pathway)
Loss of APC-->DNA hypomethylation-->activation of KRas--->loss of p53
137
how is cancer development like darwinian evolution (clonal succession)
first cell gets a mutation that starts cell toward hyperplasia. then it proliferates maybe more or faster. then another mutation happens etc. these mutations could provide an advantage and be selected for
creates large population
138
____ + _____ leads to tumor progression
mutations and epigenetic mechanisms
initiation --> promotion --> tumor progression
139
how do tumor cells complicate the darwinian evolution theory?
not all cells have same proliferative capacity
some tumors can contain small groups of cells that are cancer stem cells
only some eventually time out of division
means that some must revert back to stem cells for it to keep dividing indefinitely
140
explanation for how a cell could infinitely divide other than darwinian theory?
that differentiated (transit amplifying) cells revert back to stem cells in mutation
OR all mutations are in stem cells only
141
transit amplifying (progenitor) cell
committed to a particular differentiated state but continue to divide. descendents will be committed
142
FACS analyses to determine how tumors happen (and determine between theories post darwin)
fluorescence activating cell sorting (sort cells based on fluorescence
intratumor heterogeneity is the mixture of genetically distinct regions in a single tumor
143
intratumor heterogeneity suggests
not all cells within a tumor are as tumorigenic
144
how can we tell tumor formation is a multi step process
epidemiology --> population studies
pathology --> we can visualize cells when they are in each of the stages
genetics --> we can see different mutations correspond to different phases
145
what happens when activated ras gene is expressed in primary cells?
proliferation but not transformation
when we got taught about ras causing tumors in lab before it was because those were in cell lines that already lost their tumor suppressors
146
transformation usually requires _____
2 or more mutant genes collaborating
ex. focus formation and tumorigenicity required a ras like and a myc like oncogene in rodent cells
147
what does ras cause?
| what does myc cause?
ras: anchorage independence, loss of contact inhibition, morphological changes
myc: immortalization, growth factor independence
148
mice experiments that show tumorigenicity in myc only ras only and the combo
the combo had tumor phenotype much more apparent much earlier. then loss of ras alone was bad then loss of myc.
LAG OCCURS DUE TO LOSS OF P53
149
What is the lag in the mice myc, ras, combo experiment caused by?
loss of p53
150
what are the 5 pathways needed to mess up to have cancer in humans?
```
ras
pRb
p53
telomeres
PP2A
```
151
A. hTERT + SV40 LT
1. Rb, p53 inactivation, = immortalization
| 2. Then Ras can transform them
152
PP2A
holoenzyme with multiple subunits (C catalytic, A scaffold, B substrate)
removes phosphates that kinase adds
(kinases tend to promote proliferation so these bois normally prevent prolif but if you fuck them up we get cancer)
153
what is the reason that rodents only need 2 mutations but humans need 5 mutations to get cancer?
because there must have been some evolutionary benefit to tumor suppression that we received because our life span is longer
154
tumor progression model: initiators and promoters
initiators are mutagens
promoters are non-mutagenic agents = mitogens, cytotoxins, and the inflammatory response
if cells sustain DNA damage but don't proliferate rapidly, it will take a very long time to get them to be a tumor.
so initiators do the damage BUT promoters give you the conditions to proliferate
155
evidence for initiator promoter model
in mouse
DMBA is initiator
croton oil is the promoter
if you apply DMBA to mouse skin, you don't see anything
if you apply croton oil you see irritation but no tumor
if you apply both you see tumors
*must be initiated and promoted in the SAME spot
156
example of initiator and promoter model in humans
smoking and drinking
both together lead to 100x increase of mouth and throat cancer
```
smoke = initiator
alcohol = promoter it is a toxin which kills epithelial cells and promotes stem cells to regenerate in epithelium (this is for hard liquor
```
157
another example of initiator and promoter model in humans
hormones are mitogenic agents and can function as tumor promoters
the periodic stimulation of mammary epithelial cell proliferation under the control of progesterone prolactin and estrogen appears in breast cancer
158
chronic inflammation creates a _______
chronic proliferative environment
159
inflammation symptoms
redness
warmth
pain
swelling
because immune system cells charge the affected region in the acute phase
failure to resolve in the acute phase causes chronic inflammation
160
nf-kb & its pathway
transcription factor that is sequestered in the cytoplasm by its inhibitor (ikb).
Signaling promotes phosphorylation and degradation of the inhibitor which allows it to travel to the nucleus and transcribe target genes (similar to b catenin)
ikk is the kinase that phosphorylates the inhibitor (stimulated by all the immune factors like tnf-alpha il1beta lps ros)
targets of this pathway are anti apoptotic and pro proliferative
rarely mutated but often constitutively activated in cancer cells
-because it is more about sequestration than anything else
161
_____ is a key mediator of the inflammatory response
tnf-alpha
was one of the responses to irritants in the mouse example where we painted on the skin
162
people who took aspirin had ___________
reduced risk of cancer
163
animal model chronic inflammation example
mdr = multiple drug resistance pump, if upregulated cells become resistant to chemo, cells collect bile acids, and chronically inflame.
mdr pump is essential to protecting the hepatocytes from the bile acide
Mdr -/- is a mouse animal model with chronic liver inflammation, leading to hepatic dysplasia and HCC
-immune cells that infiltrate release tnfalpha and other hepatocytes are activated by paracrine actions --> nfkb pathway
164
mdr pump _____ hepatocytes from ______
protects; bile acids and chronic inflammation
165
in presence of ______ loss of nfkb signaling results in _______ of pre-neoplastic hepatocytes
inhibitors
| apoptosis
166
what does the idea that in the presence of inhibitors loss of nfkb signaling resulting in apoptosis of pre-neoplastic hepatocytes indicate for inflammation's role in cancer?
that tumor-promoting activity of inflammation is the suppression of apoptosis
167
chronic inflammation: _____ is always on/secreted which induces ___ pathway
tnf-alpha; nfkb
168
how do anti inflammatories work?
NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti inflammatories)
inhibit cox-2 by acetylating serine residue within enzymes catalytic cleft
cox2 is a transcriptional target of nf-kb
169
cox2
responsible for synthesizing prostaglandins
prostaglandins are lipids that are used in autocrine and paracrine mediators. signaling molecules
we will focus on PGE2
170
PGE2
key mediator of inflammation
cox 2 converts arachidonic acid into pge2
animals support a correlation between pge2 levels and cancerous lesions
associated with cancer phenotype (increased prolif but also all the things with ras activation)
- loss of ecadherin
- anchorage independent prolif
- loss of contact inhib
171
if you inhibit the cox enzyme
no inflamm response because no pge2 because no nfkb.
in presence of cox inhibitor you see increased apoptosis and decrease proliferation
172
cox2 is a ______ of nfkb pathway
transcriptional target
173
nfkb antagonizes ___ & ____
p53 and Rb
p53 by inhibiting apop
Rb by promoting things like cyclin D which will inactivate Rb
174
nfkb pathway produces:
tnf alpha
cyclin d1 (myc for prolif)
bclx (protection from apop)
175
tumor promotion is likely to be a determinant of ______
the rate of tumor progression (how fast we go from mutated weirdness to full send cancer)
all tumor promotes can enable clonal expansion and subsequent additional mutations
repeated cell division allows for replication errors
repeated prolif leads to telomere erosion (BFB)
inflamm cells such as macrophages and neutrophils deploy ROS and RNS which can function as mutagens
176
t or f: obesity is associated with increased cancer
yeah! true
177
expanding adipose tissue is ________
dysfunctional. it starts to secrete signalling molecules that normal wouldn't. they secrete chemo-attractants that increase inflammation
178
obesity mimics ________
low grade inflammation
179
hypoxia within adipose tissues activates ______
hif 1 alpha which also increases macrophage infiltration ecm remodeling and angiogenesis
180
obesity is associated with _______
insulin resistance
which is also associated with pro-proliferative stuff
181
what are upregulated in obesity and what is it associated with?
associated with pro prolif and anti apop
leptin - regulates appetite and metabolism (resistance associated with obesity) MAPK and PI3K
PAI-1 - serine protease inhib
TNF a and IL6- pro inflam
182
what is downreg in obesity and what does it do?
adiponectin
anti-inflamm
insulin sensitizing
decreases ROS (which activates mapk)
inhibits angiongenesis by promoting apop
183
colon tumor progression
The loss of Apc gene is the first thing that happens, always
■ LOH 5q
■ The epithelial cells become hyperplastic because the B-catenin pathwayis always on
DNA hypomethylation means the genes that should be silenced by hypermethylation of their promoter regions might not be silenced
■ Also, the integrity of centromeres (heterochromatic; the genome is highly methylated and condensed in that area) is affected
● Mitosis can’t happen properly
```
Mutation of codon 12 in ras occurs
■ Intermediate adenomas form (pre-cancerous growths or polyps)
■ Three pathways of ras are activated
● MAPK
○ Cyclin D and phosphorylation of Rb, no R checkpoint
● PI3K
○ Anti-apoptotic signaling
● Ral-GEF
○ Cells become more invasive and mobile
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LOH 18Q
AKA TSG (tumor suppressing gene) or DCC (deleted in colon cancer)
● Deletion contained a few different genes and scientists weren’t sure which gene loss led to cancer
■ Now, evidence points to Smad4
● This is a gene that’s part of a pathway that begins with the membrane receptor for TGF-B (anti-mitogen)
○ Normally Smads are sequestered in the cytoplasm, TGF-B signaling allows them into the nucleus
○ They are TFs that turn on CDKI genes for p21, p16 etc
p53 is the last loss before full-on carcinoma
■ Associated with LOH 17p
■ You lose the ability to perform apoptosis in the presence of stress, like
hypoxia, contact inhibition, anoikis, etc.
■ Once you lose p53, there’s nothing you can do to stop progression to
cancer
