Midterm 3

Question 1

Growth Mindset Paper

Answer 1

• A problem with complimenting kids solely on their effort and not on their ability as well can backfire, and can communicate that they’re not very capable and therefore unlikely to succeed at future tasks.
• The praise itself, whether about effort or ability, is the main problem however
• It’s a verbal reward; research has shown that kids end up less interested in whatever they were rewarded or praised for doing because now their goal is to just get praise as opposed to actually doing well on something due to interest in the subject
• Praise also communicates that our approval is conditional on the child’s continuing to impress us or do what we say
• What kids really need is unconditional support
• Another problem with praise is that if kids are preoccupied with how well they’re doing in school, then their interest in what they’re doing may suffer; a study found that adopting a growth mindset wasn’t helpful for students whose self-worth was dependent upon their performance, and they were more likely to ‘self-handicap’
• The biggest problem with this idea of growth-mindset encouraging praise is focusing on mindset itself, believing that it emphasizes that there’s something that we need to change about ourselves, and that the environment/condition can’t be changed
• Related to the fundamental attribution error: paying so much attention to personality and attitudes that we overlook how profoundly the social environment affects what we d and who we are; it causes us to ignore the politics behind things and not see how we can improve our conditions
  Overall message: praise, whether it’s encouraging a growth mindset or not, causes kids to become focused on achievement as opposed to being focused on the actually learning itself. It also encourages the idea that our conditions/environment are fixed, and that we can only focus on fixing/improving ourselves as opposed to improving both ourselves AND the conditions we’re in, since the conditions we’re in can be a bit toxic (think ‘culture of poverty’); some educators would rather convince students that they need to adopt a more positive attitude than address the quality of the curriculum or the pedagogy

Question 2

Fundamental Attribution Error

Answer 2

• From growth mindset paper
• Def: paying so much attention to personality and attitudes that we overlook how profoundly the social environment affects what we do and who we are

Question 3

Asher and Paquette: Loneliness and Peer Relations in Childhood Paper

Answer 3

• Loneliness inchildren is influenced by howwell accepted they are by peers,whether they are overtly victim-ized, whether they have friends,and the durability and qualityof their best friendships
• Loneliness definition: the cognitive awareness of a deficiency in one’s social and personal relationships, and the ensuing affective reactions of sadness, emptiness, or longing
• It is possible to have many friends and still feel lonely; it’s also possible to be poorly accepted by the peer group or lack friends and not feel lonely
• Chronic loneliness is associated with various indices of maladjustment in adolescents and adults, including dropping out of school, depression, alcoholism, and medical problems
• Kids start to have an at least rudimentary idea of loneliness at age 5 or 6; understand that loneliness consists of solitude and a depressed affect
• There is a consistent association between peer acceptance and loneliness; kids who are poorly accepted report experiencing higher levels of loneliness in kindergartners all the way up to middle school students
• There are distinct subgroups within rejected children however; withdrawn-rejected children consistently report greater loneliness than aggressive-rejected children. One factor that may account for variability in rejected children’s feelings of loneliness is overt victimization, as highly dislike children who are victimized are more likely to report elevated loneliness
• There is no evidence to date that the number of friends children have relates to loneliness, but it is important for children to have friendships that endure
• Children who make new friends but do not maintain their friendships experience higher levels of loneliness
• Children who participate in high-quality friendships experience less loneliness than other children
• Children who have ‘idealized’ views of their friends, like that their friends will never let them down and will always be there for them are likely to experience disappointments when outsiders would think the friendship is going well
• Children who believe that conflict is a sign of impending dissolution of a friendship are likely to experience higher levels of loneliness

Question 4

Kuhl on the Linguistic genius of babies

Answer 4

• Did the head-turn task, in which babies were conditioned to turn their heads when they heard a different sound
• Did this with two English language sounds that aren’t important to distinguish between in Japanese, and tested American and Japanese children
• At 6-8 months, both groups of kids were equally as likely to respond correctly
• At 10-12 months, the American children had become better at responding, and the Japanese children had become worse
• During this 2 month time frame, babies are listening to us and taking statistics on the sounds they’re hearing in our language, seeing different distributions of sounds, and using those statistics to become more or less sensitive to certain sounds
• Repeated experiment with American infants and Taiwanese infants and saw the same results, and then did a test in which in that critical time period, American babies were exposed to Mandarin for 12 sessions. Babies who were exposed to Mandarin were then as good as babies in Taiwan when given these sessions
• Researchers then wanted to know what the presence of a human being there and talking to them had, so they repeated the experiment, but this time with the kids getting their exposure through a video, and babies who had just audio exposure. The audio and video group showed no learning; babies need humans to be there and be present for them to take their statistics.
• Used MEG machines to record babies while listening to different languages and see their brain activity

Question 5

Symbols

Answer 5

• Systems for representing thoughts, feelings, and knowledge, and communicating them to others
• Language is the most powerful symbolic system

Question 6

Generativity of Language

Answer 6

• We can take the finite set of words in our vocabulary and put them together in an infinite number of sentences and express and infinite number of ideas

Question 7

Four different components of language

Answer 7

• Phonology: perception and production of speech sounds
• Semantics: how we segment words and learn their meaning
• Pragmatics: the context in which language is used
• Syntax: arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences

Question 8

Phonemes

Answer 8

• the elements of sound in speech
• Ex: when –> wh/e/n = 3 phonemes
• English uses just 45 of the 200 sounds found in all languages
• Perception of phonemes is not continuous, but is categorical

Question 9

What a child needs to be able to do to master phonology

Answer 9

1. Discriminate the sounds of their native language

2. Categorize the sounds of their native language

Question 10

McGurk effect

Answer 10

• Example of phonological perception being categorical as opposed to continuous
• Shows that speech perception results from an interaction between sound and vision
• If we see a video of someone saying ‘far’ next to a video of someone saying ‘bar’ but hear the same word (either bar or far) over both videos, we will think that the individual is saying the word that they’re mouthing, and the word we hear will change as we look back and forth between the videos; we’ll only hear ‘bar’ or ‘far’ though, we won’t hear some intermediary sound

Question 11

How Phoneme Perception Develops

Answer 11

• Babies learn to NOT tell apart sounds that aren’t important in their language
• Shows that phoneme perception is also an example of perceptual narrowing, as well as the ‘use it or lose it’ function; the development of phoneme perception in infants is similar to their development of facial recognition

Question 12

Conditioned Head-Turn Study

Answer 12

• Used to measure perceptual narrowing of phonemes in babies
• Conditioned babies to look to the side when they heard a different sound
• Ex: ba..ba..ba..da
• Infants at 6 months were able to tell the difference between the sounds (‘universal listeners’)
• At 10-12 months, infants lost the ability to distinguish between sounds that weren’t important to distinguish between in their native language
• This loss of sensitivity (roughly) coincides with the onset of word learning (6 months to 1 year)

Question 13

Early vocalizations

Answer 13

• At 6-8 weeks, babies coo, which is the production of drawn-out vowel sounds
• They also have an increased awareness that vocalization elicits response from others
• By practicing vowels, they’re gaining motor control of their facial muscles
• At 6-10 months, babies start to babble, which is repeated strings of syllables (ba ba ba)
• This babbling gradually converges on sounds, intonation, and rhythm of their native language
• Congenitally deaf babies will do manual babbling if exposed to sign language
• Other animals babble as well, like birds and bats

Question 14

What children need to grasp to learn word meanings

Answer 14

1. What are words (word segmentation)

2. What do the words mean

Question 15

Semantics Step 1: Word Segmentation

Answer 15

• Where do words start/end
• Attending to pauses generally won’t help grasp word segmentation, since human speech occurs without breaks
• Statistical learning helps babies segment words, as they pay attention to transitional? probabilities to guess what are individual words or not

Question 16

Mondegreens

Answer 16

• Mishearing or misinterpretation of a phrase; occurs a lot with song lyrics

Question 17

Word Segmentation Experiment

Answer 17

• Took 8 month old babies and put them through a familiarity phase and a test phase
• In the familiarity phase, they played four made-up words for the babies being repeated over and over again in the span of 2 minutes at the rate at which normal speech is spoken (no pauses between words)
• Their only cues at word boundaries were thus to use transitional probability, which is how likely each syllable is to follow the previous one. It’s higher with actual words, of course
• The test phase then involved the babies listening to either a full word or part of a full word from the fake words they had just heard
• The babies were able to discriminate between ‘words’ and ‘parts-of-words’, showing that infants are sensitive to which syllables repeatedly occurred together

Question 18

Transitional Probability

Answer 18

• In semantics, it’s the likelihood that a particular syllable is to follow the previous one
• Is higher in actual words than syllables between words (ex: higher in ac-tual than tual-words)
• What babies use to determine what are words and what aren’t when hearing speech

Question 19

Semantics Step 2: What do words mean

Answer 19

• Kids have comprehension of highly familiar words at 6 months old (they’ll look towards an object you label, like ‘dog’)
• Kids say their first words around 10-15 months old
• A vocabulary explosion occurs around 18 months, at which children learn words fast, and can learn through just a single exposure via fast-mapping
• Word learning is not straightforward, and kids have to make some default assumptions when learning words
• They assume that the word refers to the object as a whole and not a portion, place, or property.
  Ex: if you point to a rabbit and say ‘rabbit’, they assume the whole rabbit is a rabbit, not that its’ tail is a rabbit
• They assume the new word refers only to objects of that shape, and that each thing will only have one shape (a rabbit is only a rabbit, not a rabbit and bunny)
• Kids also infer what a new word means by ruling out objects they already know (ex. show them a rubber duck and an unknown object and ask which is the ‘koba’, they’re going to select the unknown object)
• Linguistic context is also useful to help kids understand word meanings

Question 20

Fast Mapping

Answer 20

• The technique/name for when kids are able to learn a word after just one exposure to the word, even if the word is only referred to indirectly

Question 21

Fast Mapping Koba Study

Answer 21

• Kids were shown an object that was unfamiliar to them and were told it was a ‘koba’
• Kids were then brought back a week later and a month later and shown various objects, asked to point out the ‘koba’, and they remembered

Question 22

Linguistic context

Answer 22

• Useful in semantics
• the syntactic form of a word (noun, verb, etc) can help children figure out what a word is referring to
  Ex: If a person is shown mixing up some small objects with their hands in a bowl/container and are told ‘this is a sib’, the kids will think the sib is the container
• If they are told ‘he is sibbing’, they’ll think the action he’s doing is sibbing
• If they’re told “this is some sib’, they’ll think the objects are sibs.
• Shows that children are sensitive to grammatical cues

Question 23

Word Production in Babies

Answer 23

• Usually say their first word at 10-12 months
• When they first start speaking, they use one word utterances/phrases to communicate (ex. ‘water’ for ‘I want more water’)
• Kids will first go through underextension, in which they think a name of a group refers to only that specific type of object in the group as opposed to the group itself( ex. ‘flower’ refers to only roses, and not sunflowers or any other type of flower)
• Kids will then go through overextension since what they want to talk about quickly out-strips their vocabulary (ex. will use the word ‘ball’ to refer to a ball, a balloon, a marble, and apple, etc)
• The number of words a child knows is intimately related to the number of words they hear

Question 24

Pragmatics and Word Learning

Answer 24

• Pragmatics involves paying attention to social cues/context and to where the speaker is attending
• Ex: a toddler can use the speaker’s gaze to determine what the novel word they used is referring to
• Understanding the speaker’s emotion can help as well

Question 25

Speech Inflection Study

Answer 25

- Example of pragmatics - A researcher looked in various buckets for an object, changing their voice inflection when they looked in the bucket that had the object - When kids were asked to choose the bucket that the object was it, they chose the right one, showing that they can use emotion in speech to interpret things

Question 26

Parentese

Answer 26

- The distinctive speech pattern we tend to take on when talking to babies and young children - It's warm, affectionate, has a higher pitch, extreme intonation, slow speech, and exaggerated facial expressions - Babies seem to prefer parentese - In one study, when babies turned their head one way, they would hear a speech recording spoken normally, and when they turned their head the other way, they would hear a recording in parentese, and after about 8 trials the babies picked up on this trend, and would turn their heads to hear the parentese - The advantages of parentese is that it directs the infant's attention to the speaker and increases infant communication and language skills - Babies even like parentese in other languages

Question 27

Parentese Intervention Study

Answer 27

- One group of parents was given feedback on parental language quality, speaking style, and parent-child turn taking that also discussed appropriate daily routines that promote language interactions. - The other group received no training (control group) - The amount of parentese speech increased in intervention group, and the babies in this group knew nearly twice as many words at age 18 months than those in the control group

Question 28

Producing Grammar

Answer 28

- Related to syntax - Syntactic rules are learned naturally, without explicit teaching - Around 4-5 years old, children's grammar is as good as that of a college student - When producing grammar, kids start with one-word speech, in which they may string multiple words together, but only because they've heard these words used together so often that they probably can't tell that it's multiple words (ex. 'Iwant') - They start using two-word, telegraphic speech at age 2 (ex. 'Juice daddy') - children have trouble forming complex sentences, however, until they're well into their school years

Question 29

Grammar sensitivity study

Answer 29

- Done to test to see if kids actually understand grammar (just not 100%, which is why they have trouble forming complex sentences) or if they're just imitating what they hear - A recording was played, that either said "big bird is ticking cookie monster", or "cookie monster is tickling big bird", and kids ages 12-16 months were shown the two scenarios - Kids looked longer at the scenario the recording said, indicating that they understand those sentences

Question 30

Wugs and Syntactic Rules

Answer 30

- Wanted to see if 4 year olds could generate correct endings for novel words - showed kids an object they called a 'wug', and then showed kids two of the objects and asked what they saw - Kids were able to pluralize the objects, responding with 'wugs', showing they can transfer the plural rule - This also worked for activities ('wugging" vs "wugged')

Question 31

Over-regulation errors

Answer 31

- Evidence that kids have grammar knowledge - Kids tend to have over-regulation errors, in that they treat irregular words as regular (he go-ed to the store, when i growed up) - Kids are over-applying rules; they aren't just memorizing what they hear

Question 32

Noam Chomsky

Answer 32

- Hypothesized that the ability to learn grammar must be innate, and that development is not just simple associative learning (nativism) - Came to this conclusion by observing these over-regulation errors and kids over-applying rules, causing them to produce speech they have never heard and aren't rewarded for ('I break-ed it, I want some-s") - We aren't born with the ability to understand grammar, but are born with the ability to LEARN to understand grammar - Before Chomsky, it was believed that kids were just learning through association and that they didn't actually understand grammar

Question 33

Critical Period of Language learning

Answer 33

- Language becomes much harder to pick up on after age 7 - Between the ages of 5 and puberty, language acquisition becomes more difficult, mainly the syntax and grammar bit of language - Genie is an example of this: She was able to learn word meanings very fast, but she never picked up on the syntax and sentence structure

Question 34

Critical Learning period Study in Chinese and Korean children

Answer 34

- Looked at kids who came to the U.S. from Korea and China at different ages - Those who arrived before the age of 7 had the grammar of a native English speaker - The grammar declined with age of arrival until about 17 at which it leveled out

Question 35

Nicaraguan Sign Language

Answer 35

- There was no formal sign language, and the deaf were normally isolated from one another (no deaf schools until 1970s) - Some children spontaneously developed their own sign language - Age matters: the younger learner's signs are more fluent and grammatical - Input matters: those who heard less mature languages are less fluent - This provided evidence that we have a pre-disposition for language, and that our experience with the input of language plays a role in our language development

Question 36

Nativism

Answer 36

- The idea by Chomsky that language is innate There are several facts supporting nativism: - All human children and no domestic pets learn language - There are strong similarities in how all languages are structured - When input is chaotic, children structure it, and when the language is absent, children create it (like those in Nicaragua)

Question 37

Constructivism

Answer 37

- From Behaviorism The idea that children learn the specific language around them; babies in the U.S. learn English, babies in China learn Chinese, etc - I don't think this idea competes with the nativist approach, I think these ideas work together

Question 38

Language development and socioeconomic status

Answer 38

- Parents in families of higher SES tend to speak more to their kids (more linguistic exposure) and this adds up over the years to give dramatically different estimated word exposures - Remember that the number of words a child is exposed to is correlated with how many words they have in their vocabulary

Question 39

High SES vs Mid SES Mother Study

Answer 39

- Took mothers of High SES and Mid SES and observed the differences in maternal speech, as well as their kids' speech - Found that the mother's number and length of utterances, richness of vocabulary, and sentence complexity predicted their child's spoken vocabulary, how quickly their toddler recognized familiar words, and the toddler's speed at processing/understanding words

Question 40

Technology and Language Learning

Answer 40

- Took a group of kids age 12-18 months old and their parents and split them up into four different categories: - Control, in which parents did what they normally would do for teaching language - Video w/ interaction: parents watched educational videos with their babies and interacted with the babies - Video w/ no interaction: parents just sat the kids down with the video - Parent teaching: parents taught kids what was taught in the videos - The found that the parent teaching group scored best, followed by video w/ interaction, showing that parent interaction assists in language learning - Also did a similar study in which children watched videos that were either interactive, as in they were just video chatting with someone and were actively engaging with them, or a pre-recorded video - They found that the live video maintained social contingencies between the infant and the teacher

Question 41

Dual Representation

Answer 41

- Crucial to be able to understand symbols - Need to be able to understand the symbol itself, and its relation to the thing or idea it's referring to - Kids under 3 lack dual representation, and thus often have scale errors

Question 42

Scale Errors

Answer 42

- Seen in kids under 3 due to there lack of dual representation - The kids don't really understand that toy cars are just representations of the real thing, and may try to get into a car that is wayyy too small for them because that's been their experience with cars -- that you can get inside them

Question 43

Scale Model Task study

Answer 43

- Showcases how kids under age 3 have a lack of dual representation and are prone to scale errors - Show kids a scale model of a testing room and hide an object in the scale model, then take the kids to the actual testing room and ask them to find it - Kids under 3 will look everywhere in the room, failing to understand the symbolic relation between the actual room and the model - Kids 3 and older will go directly to where the object was hidden in the model room, showing they understand that the model is a symbol

Question 44

Incredible Shrinking Room TAsk

Answer 44

Similar to scale model task, but not testing kids' understanding of dual-representation - Show kids a machine and tell them its a shrinking machine, put a toy in front of it, leave the room, and when they come back, the toy is smaller - Then they show the kids a room and show them where they're going to hide an object in the room, use the machine to shrink the room, and then have the kid come back and find the hidden object in a model of the room that is the 'shrunken room' - Kids are able to find where the object was hidden right away, because in their minds there was only ever one room; eliminated the need for them to use dual representation - Provides evidence that dual representation is kids' problem with symbolic reasoning

Question 45

Real-life Implications of Dual Representation

Answer 45

- Baby Einstein videos, in which kids are shown a picture and then hear the word for that picture (ex. playground) don't work for kids under 3 b/c they'll just think that the word refers to the picture, not the actual thing - Using anatomically correct dolls in the court-room to ask kids to show where they were hurt doesn't work for kids under 5, because they lack dual representation AND they aren't able to use dual representation on themselves until about age 5

Question 46

Picture Drawing

Answer 46

- A common symbolic activity for children - Children's artistic ideas often far outstrip their motor and planning capabilities, which is why squiggles can be whatever they say it is

Question 47

Relational Play

Answer 47

- Seen in kids 12 months and older, and involves bringing two or more objects together (banging objects together, putting blocks in correct holes, etc)

Question 48

Simple Manipulation Play

Answer 48

- The first kind of play that kids adopt, which involves banging, throwing, mouthing, etc

Question 49

Pretend play

Answer 49

- Starts to occur around 18 months - Is a method for exploring and creating social structures - Pretend play is make-believe activities in which children can create new symbolic relations - It facilitates the development of cause-effect reasoning by imagining possibilities - The two main types of pretend play are object substitution, and sociodramatic play Object Substitution - Object substitution is a form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than its self (eg, a broom becomes a horse) - These substitutions are able to become increasingly abstract over time (eg, first they can only imagine a play phone as a real phone, then they can imagine a banana as a phone, then a block as a phone) - After age 4, kids are able to represent objects that aren't present (object representation), like hands as binoculars) Sociodramatic play - Sociodramatic play is activities in which children enact "miniature dramas" with other children or adults (eg., mother comforting baby, playing doctor) - It begins around 3 years old - Expands their understanding of the social world

Question 50

Do children know that pretend play isn't real

Answer 50

- Yes, but they can still have emotional reactions to pretend - In pencil box study in which kids were shown 3 boxes, box 1 which had a pencil in it and boxes 2 and 3 that were empty and asked to imagine a pencil in box 3, which the kid said they did, they still reached for box 1 when another adult came in the room and asked for a pencil - In a raisin study, kids observed two people, one pretending to eat raisins, exaggerating her movements, and one actually eating raisins, doing so like a person normally would eat. When asked to get raisins for themselves, the kids would reach for the bowl that actually had the raisins, showing that they can read cues from others

Question 51

Imaginary Friends

Answer 51

- About 60% of children had imaginary friends at one point - Helps kids learn cause and effect in the social world - Presence of an imaginary friend is correlated with less TV, higher verbal skills, and higher theory of mind

Question 52

Main Functions of Play

Answer 52

Play is a form of learning: Play as practice: - Allows for consolidation of physical skills - Allows children to improve social coordination, like talking to others, establishing and enforcing rules, etc Play as Exploration - Gives kids a chance to try new social roles (fireman, parent, etc) - Is a way to explore ideas about how the world works - Kids are gathering information through play, like little scientists!

Question 53

Play and Stats

Answer 53

- Kids are more likely to play with/explore things that are more uncertain - If we show kids two boxes with balls and pull out the same pattern of colors of balls, which appears to contradict the proportion of colors of balls seen in one box, the baby will spend more time exploring the contradictory box

Question 54

Pedagogy

Answer 54

- The method of practice and teaching (in this class, we mainly discuss direct instruction when talking about pedagogy) - While direct instruction helps the learner to figure out the relevant hypothesis, it does so at a cost - Children who are given direct instruction tend to explore less and are less likely to discover things

Question 55

Direct Instruction (Pedagogy) Task

Answer 55

- Researchers made a toy out of PVC pipe that had four non-obvious causal relationships: mirror, a squeak, a light, and music playing - The kids were then split into four groups: Pedagogical: kids were directly shown how one causal relationship worked Interrupted: kids started to see how one causal relationship worked, but then were interrupted - Naive: researcher pretended that they just found the toy and "accidentally" discovered a causal relationship in front of the child - Baseline: gave the kids the toy to figure out on their own - The kids in the direct instruction group tended to stick to that one causal relationship, not discovering any new relationships - The kids in all other groups discovered at least one causal relationship on their own - Showed that direct instruction discourages kids from exploring

Question 56

Functional Fixedness

Answer 56

- Limits a person to use an object only in the way that it is traditionally used - We tend to only think of objects as having single function - Limits our creativity to re-use objects for a different purpose - In an experiment with adults, they're shown a box full of thumbtacks, a candle and some matches and asked to hold the candle against the wall in an apparatus that prevents it from dripping wax on the ground - The answer is to take the tacks out of the box, tack the box to the wall and put the candle in it, but most adults don't figure this out because of functional fixedness: they only see the box as a box that holds thumbtacks, not as a box that can be used for something else; the box's use as a container blocks the idea of it being used as a support - It is easier for them to figure it out if the box is empty, since they don't see it as already serving a function (holding tacks) - Kids were given a task very similar and, and 5 year olds were able to figure it out right away. - 6-7 year olds took three times as longer as the 5 year olds showing that they're already starting to lose some creativity, which generally happens as we age

Question 57

Blicket Detector: Kids vs Adults

Answer 57

- Showed kids and adults a blicket detector and demonstrated how it worked, providing evidence that suggested one hypothesis, and then providing evidence that suggested another hypothesis - Kids did better at the task and were better able to accept the new hypothesis - Adults tended to stick to their preconceived notions of how it worked, disregarding the new hypothesis - Shows that kids are better at abstract thinking and are more willing to accept unusual circumstances

Question 58

What is emotion

Answer 58

Def: neural and physiological responses to the environment, subjective feelings, cognition related to those feelings, and the drive to take action There are four main components of emotion: - Neural/physiological correlations(ex. adrenaline, heart rate) - Transient subjective feelings (eg. fear, elation) - Thoughts the accompany fear (eg. how to escape or approach) - Desire to take action (eg. fight or flight)

Question 59

Importance of Emotion

Answer 59

1. Survival - Negative emotions can help us avoid harmful things - Positive emotions can help us approach things that are good for us 2. Motivate activity - Without emotion, some argue that we wouldn't act 3. Communicate our feelings

Question 60

FACS

Answer 60

- Facial Action Coding System | - Each emotion corresponds to distinct muscle contraction combinations

Question 61

Discrete Emotion Theory

Answer 61

- Put forth by Darwin - Contrasts Functionalist Approach to Emotion - Believes emotions are innate - Believes that there is a direct link between inner emotional states (feelings) and facial expressions - Believes that emotions are discrete from one another from very early in life - Each emotion is believed to be packaged with a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions - Believes emotion is universal across human culture

Question 62

Functionalist Approach to Emotion

Answer 62

- Contrasts Discrete Emotion Theory - Emphasizes context - Believes that cognitive, social and physical experiences interact to influence emotional reactions - Believes that emotions are continuous and interpreted - A benefit to the functionalist approach to emotion is that it allows for differentiation between nuances in a "single" discrete emotion. - For example, if you compare the fear of dying to the fear of failure, functionalist approach allows us to view them as two different types of fear, but discrete emotion theory would recognize fear as a single emotion and as universally experienced, not taking into account how fear is felt differently in different contexts

Question 63

Cross-Cultural Studies on Emotion

Answer 63

- The early theory on emotion was that facial expressions are not innate, but are learned through mimicry, so people in different countries may express emotion differently - Researchers went to countries that didn't have much contact with the outside world and asked them to make the expressions they would make when feeling a certain emotion, and they made the same emotions we would make here in the U.S or elsewhere - Showed that emotion is universal and potentially innate - There was also an observational study done in which they observed blind and sighted athletes expressions when they won or lost, and they were the same, supporting emotions as being innate.

Question 64

7 Basic Emotions

Answer 64

- Happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, contempt, surprise

Question 65

Smiling and Happiness

Answer 65

- Babies smiles are reflexive in the first month - Around 6 weeks, we start to see social smiles, and babies start to smile due to internal states, tactile stimulation, external visual and auditory stimulus, etc - At two months, we see babies smile when they see they can control and event (mobile) - At 6 months, they start smiling at people they recognize

Question 66

Negative Emotions: Anger, Fear, and Sadness

Answer 66

- Negative emotions are definitely present in newborns, but it can be difficult to distinguish which is which - By 2 months, we can differentiate anger and sadness from distress and pain Fear - We start to see the first signs of fear around 6-7 months, usually of strangers Anger - In infants, anger is usually blended with sadness or distress - By 12 months, anger becomes distinct from sadness and distress Sadness - Usually co-occurs with anger - Occurs mainly due to separation anxiety, which starts around 8 months old, intensifies at 13-15 months old, and then starts to decline

Question 67

Complex Emotions

Answer 67

- Include self-conscious emotions, like guilt, shame, jealousy, empathy, and pride - Often involves self-conscious thought and the incorporation of rules and norms - Self conscious emotions require a 'sense of self' and understanding of other's reactions, so normally doesn't start until 1-2 years, or 18 months old, at which they pass the mirror task

Question 68

Mirror Task

Answer 68

- Used to test for a 'sense of self' to see if kids can recognize themselves in the mirror - Kids fail until around 18 months old

Question 69

Guilt and Shame

Answer 69

- Complex, self-conscious emotions - Are NOT the same - Guilt: associated with empathy for others - Can include remorse and regret, and wanting to make up for wrong-doing Shame: focused more on self - May feel exposed and feel the need to hide - Parents reactions can influence whether shame or guilt is felt: - Emphasizing the wrongness of the action elicits guilt ('you did a bad thing') - Emphasizing the wrongness of the child elicits shame ('you are bad')

Question 70

Guilt vs Shame Doll Experiment

Answer 70

- Gave kids a doll to play with, and while experimenter was gone, the doll's arm 'accidentally' fell off - Kids who expressed shame would avoid the adult and not tell them what happened - Kids who experienced guilt would tell the adult what happened right away and try to fix the doll with them

Question 71

Sympathy and Empathy

Answer 71

- Complex, self-conscious emotions Sympathy: Acknowledging feelings and expressing compassion Empathy: understanding and feeling another's feelings; putting yourself in that person's shoes - We see emotional contagion with sympathy and empathy - Emotional contagion: tendency to catch and feel emotions that are similar to and associated with those of others Ex; yawning

Question 72

Jealousy Experiment

Answer 72

- 5 month old infants witnessed their mothers expressing affection to either another infant or another adult - 50% showed distress when affection was expressed to another infant, while only 10% showed distress when affection was expressed to another adult

Question 73

Still-Face Experiment

Answer 73

- Experiment to see if infants understand the emotions of others - Took 1 year old infants and had their mother sit down and play with them, engaging with them, then had her turn around and turn back with a blank expression, not changing no matter what the infant did - The baby tried multiple tactics to re-engage its' mother, nd when none worked the baby got distressed, showing that they do understand emotions - In fact, 7 month olds are able to distinguish happiness, sadness, anger and fear expressed in others - Infants have a negative bias- they respond to negative emotions more powerfully and in a more consistent manner

Question 74

Social Referencing Experiment

Answer 74

- Babies are able to understand how emotions are related to actions (social referencing) at 12 months of age - Babies crawl towards an apparent drop-off, and often look to their mother for guidance - If the mother has a worried look, the baby tends to not cross - If the mother has a happy expression, the baby will tend to cross, being re-assured that it's alright

Question 75

Social Referencing

Answer 75

- Relying on the expressions and behaviors of others for important information about how to interpret various situations

Question 76

Attachment

Answer 76

- The close, enduring, emotional bond between caregivers and children - It is essential for typical social and emotional development - Behaviors that help form and maintain attachments include smiling, cuddling, and cuteness - The smile of recognition occurs in babies at around 6 months old - The cuteness response inhibits aggression and encourages nurturance - The cuter the face, the more active the reward-anticipation system - There are similar features in the young of many species, and humans and monkeys both prefer to look at baby faces than adult faces

Question 77

Behaviors that set up and maintain bonds Across ages

Answer 77

- Newborns show a preference for looking at faces over other stimuli, and attend to human voices, but do not show clear bonds to specific people - At 3 months old, infants smile at people more often, but still do not show specific bonds to particular individuals - At 6 months, infants have now formed bonds with specific people and smile more in their presence - At 8 months, most infants start showing separation distress when the individuals with whom they have formed specific bonds with leave

Question 78

Bases of Social Interaction

Answer 78

- Joint attention and gaze following - Social referencing - Contingent responding (still-face experiment); babies expect their parent to attend to them and respond to the rhythmic pattern of give-and-take that characterizes social interactions

Question 79

Parenting Beliefs in the 1940s

Answer 79

- parenting beliefs were dominated by behaviorism - Believed that reward and punishment shaped behavior, that kids should be fed on a schedule, that kids should be allowed to cry without giving them affection, etc - Didn't believe that social contact was particularly important, and actually somewhat shunned physical contact (don't touch your kid, don't kiss them, don't hug them, etc) - Dr. Spock introduced ideas against these Behaviorism dominated ideas that were considered revolutionary at the time and were typically disregarded - He believed that the emotional relationship between parent and child is important, believed that children need to feel loved and everything else would follow from there

Question 80

Harlow Monkey Studies

Answer 80

- Kind of tested Dr. Spock's ideas, asking if there is more to the mother-infant relationship than just feeding and making sure their basic needs are met? - Separated monkeys from their mothers at birth and gave them one of multiple conditions that included them having a 'mother', either a cloth mother, a wire mother, or in some cases both. - In the monkeys that had both a cloth and wire mother, but the wire mother was the only one that fed them, they tended to cling to the cloth mother, spending up to 22 hours a day with it, and only went to the wire mother when they needed to be fed - This contradicted what the behaviorist prediction of the study was, which was that the monkeys would spend most of their time with the mother that provided food for them - This study showed that food is not enough, and that a bond is important as well - Monkeys who were only given a wire mother were shown to exhibit abnormal socio-emotional behaviors later on in life, whereas those who had access to a cloth mother were able to develop into normally functioning adults if given peer interaction

Question 81

WWII studies

Answer 81

- Between 1937-1943 in WWII, a lot of kids were separated from their parents and were orphaned - Orphans back then were basically just beds, where kids were given their basic physical care (a place to sleep, food, clothing, shelter), but not the proper social care - There were typically 10 kids per 1 caregiver - Kids who were raised at this time were more likely to be withdrawn and isolated, overreactive, distractible, abusive, lack feeling for others, and exhibit abnormal social behavior because of this lack of social care

Question 82

John Bowlby

Answer 82

- He was one of the first people to study attachment, and observed that children in orphanages were listless, depressed, emotionally disturbed, had feelings of emptiness, and were unable to develop normal emotional relationships Theory of Attachment - Believed that the caregiver-child relationship is important; the caregiver offers a secure base from which the young offspring can explore. -Believed that the attachment process is rooted in evolution, but the quality attachment is highly dependent upon infant's experiences w/ caregiver 4 Phases of Attachment 1. Pre-attachment (birth to 6 months) - Infant produces innate signals (e.g. crying) that bring the caregiver to them, and this interaction is comforting 2. Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks to 6-8 months) - Begin attending preferentially to familiar people, especially primary care-giver -Infants learn whether or not the caregiver is trustworthy( do they attend to the baby when they cry, etc) 3. Clear-cut attachment (6-8 months to 1.5-2 years) - Actively seek comfort from caregivers - Experience distress at parting and happiness at reunion - Mother/Father now serve as a secure base 4. Reciprocal Relationships (1.5-2 years and onward) - Increasing ability to organize efforts to be near parents - Separation distress declines - Child actively creates reciprocal relationships with parent

Question 83

Mothers in Prison Study in 50s

Answer 83

- Before this study, it was believed that it would be better for babies born to mothers in prison to be separated from them and put in orphanages - This study tested that by taking half the babies born to women in prison and putting them in orphanages, as was typical, and putting the other half in nurseries in the prisons in which their mothers could visit them - By the age of 1, 1 in 4 kids in the orphanages had died, and there were no deaths in the nurseries, and the kids in the orphanages had significantly lower than average IQs, whereas those in the nurseries had normal IQs - By age 2, the death rate in the orphanages had risen to 37%, and the kids were seriously developmentally delayed, whereas there still hadn't been any deaths in the nurseries and the kids were developing just fine

Question 84

Strange Situation Study

Answer 84

- Originally by Mary Ainsworth in the 60s and 70s - Used to assess and categorize attachment styles - Took 12-18 month olds and put them through a series of separations and reunions with their caregiver and an experimenter The things that they looked at to determine attachment style included: - Active play and exploration in caregivers presence - Preference for caregiver vs stranger for comfort - Behavior of infants during reunion - If distressed from separation, they wanted to see if the child would seek contact with the caregiver and if the contact soothes the infant - If not distressed from separation, wanted to see if the infant would greet the caregiver with positive emotions - Four different attachment categories spawned from this study

Question 85

Attachments Categories

Answer 85

- Created/defined by the Strange Situation study 1. Securely attached - Effectively uses parent as a secure base - Shows some distress when parent leaves - Is happy to see parent return - About 60% of middle class kids in the U.S fall into this category, and a lower percentage from SES groups do 2. Insecure/Resistant (Anxious-ambivalent) - Child in clingy, explores less even when parent is in the room - Very upset when parent leaves - Child seeks contact with parent when parent returns, but resists effort at comfort - About 10% of middle class kids in U.S. 3. Insecure/Avoidant - Child is indifferent to parent before separation - Behaves similarly to parent and stranger - Does not greet parent upon return - About 15% of middle class kids in U.S. 4. Disorganized/Disoriented - Some kids don't fit any of the above categories - Don't show consistent coping mechanisms - Confused facial expressions - Appeared to want to approach parent after separation, but might hesitate, or go towards parent and then back away - 15% of middle class kids in U.S.

Question 86

Infants Attachment and Behavior Later in Life

Answer 86

- Securely attached infants in the future tend to have closer relationships with their peers, are better able to understand other's emotions, are less anxious or depressed, respond better to stress, and are more likely to have positive romantic relationships in adolescence and adulthood - Insecurely attached infants in the future tend to be more socially/emotionally withdrawn, be less curious and less interested in learning, have fewer close friendships in adolescence, and engage in more aggressive, disruptive behaviors - We can't tell if these later-life outcomes are due to the child's attachment style as an infant, or if what causes their attachment style is also what causes these later life outcomes

Question 87

Causes of Differences in Attachment

Answer 87

1. Genetics - There are only a few relevant studies, but they suggest that there is a small but real genetic component to attachment style 2. Experience, specifically differences in parenting

Question 88

Parent Sensitivity

Answer 88

- How well the parent notices the child's signal, interprets it correctly, and responds consitently - Parent sensitivity is strongly correlated to infant's attachment style, and can actually possibly predict it - Parents of securely attached infants tend to have high parental sensitivity, having a lot of positive exchanges - Parents of insecure/resistant infants tend to respond inconsistently to the infant's distressed and be overwhelmed - Parents of insecure/avoidant infants tend to be indifferent and emotionally unavailable, and may even reject the infant's efforts to cuddle - A study was done to see if that changes in parenting can change apparent predisposition for an attachment style - Took 6 month olds who had been determined to be 'at risk' for insecure attachments at birth, and gave half of the parents interventions on how to recognize the infant's cues, respond, and promote positive exchanges (increase parental sensitivity), and had the other act as the control - The intervention worked; 62% of kids in the intervention group were securely attached as compared to 22% in the control group - The results were also long lasting, as when the kids were tested a year later (18 months), the rates were relatively the same- 72% secure in the intervention group as compared to 26% in the control group

Question 89

Children's Influence on Parenting (and thus, attachment style)

Answer 89

- Some genes may make kids more or less sensitive to the quality of their caregiver - An infant's temperament may affect parenting; kids with a 'worse' temperament may make it more difficult for their parents to maintain sensitivity - Some kids are orchids (need more support/special care), whereas some are dandelions (are more hardy) - About 15-20% of kids are orchids, while the rest are dandelions - Infant attractiveness also influences parenting

Question 90

Culture Variation in Attachment Styles

Answer 90

- We see these 3 main attachment styles (not including disorganized) in pretty much all cultures, but there are different proportions of each depending on the culture - Japan: has the same proportion of securely attached infants as the US, but no insecure/avoidant infants, probably due to Japanese culture emphasizing 'oneness' between mother and child, and fostering more physical closeness - Germany: 50% of children are insecurely attached at 10 months old because german culture emphasizes independence of offspring and exhibits relatively low sensitivity ratings - Israel: Children who attend kibbutz (communal over-night up-bringing) are less likely to be securely attached and more likely to be insecure/resistant; only 48% of kids who attend kibbutz are securely attached SN: Daycare is FINE and doesn't negatively affect attachment

Question 91

Basic aspects of 'self'

Answer 91

1. Physical being (body, possessions) 2. Social characteristics (social roles, relationships) 3. Internal/mental characteristics (thoughts, beliefs)

Question 92

Self-Identity in Early Development (up to age 3)

Answer 92

- 3-5 month olds are impressed by leg moving mobile - 18 month olds pass the mirror task - 2-3 year olds can recognize themselves in photographs and start to show self-conscious emotions

Question 93

How Self-Concept changes throughout Childhood

Answer 93

-Asked kids to describe who they are 3-4 year olds: - Tend to focus on observable, concrete characteristics (family, house, etc) - Focus on abilities and activities (strong, likes to play with legos) - Basic psychological traits, like happy - Unrealistically positive (I'm ALWAYS happy, etc) 8-11 year olds: - Social comparison plays a big role in how they perceive themselves; focus on others evaluations and their place in the social network - Have more nuanced concepts of traits; (ex. not just 'smart', but smart at literature but not math, etc) -More realistic and less positive 11-13 year olds: - Even more abstract self-descriptions (introvert, extrovert) - Understand that self can differ depending on context (funny with friends, serious with parents, etc) Middle adolescence and early adulthood: - Concerned with apparent contradictions and the fact that they act differently with different people - Most adolescence believe that their feelings and experiences are unique, special, weird, etc, and not shared - Are worried about other's judgements (the 'spot-light' effect)

Question 94

Spotlight Effect

Answer 94

- The idea that everyone is watching you and judging you - Did a study on this in which they had an undergrad go into a room filled with other undergrads doing another task and sit down facing all of them while wearing either and 'embarrassing' shirt, or a plain shirt - Asked the target how many people they thought noticed/would remember their shirt, and then asked the people in the room to recall what the shirt was of, and while the target wearing the embarrassing shirt thought 50% would remember their shirt, only 20% actually did - Only 20% of people remembered the plain shirt as well --> number didn't change

Question 95

Erik Erikson's theory of identity formation

Answer 95

- Believes it happens in stages - In adolescence, we go from identity confusion to identity achievement - Believes we need a 'time out' in adolescence to explore different options and form an identity ('psychosocial moratorium') Erikson's Identity Status Categories: - Identity diffusion: no firm identity commitments and not really exploring options (young adolescence) - Foreclosure: commitment to an identity w/out exploration, based on the values of others (mainly young adolescence) - Moratorium: exploring choices, not yet committed; stage where a lot of us have an identity crisis (quarter-life crisis; common at 17-19 years old) - Identity Achievement: coherent, stable identity seen based on personal choices - Identity status does matter; people who are committed to an identity tend to have a higher well-being, self-esteem, and emotional stability. This is true whether this status is achieved through foreclosure or through identity achievement

Question 96

Intuitive Theories of Ability

Answer 96

Two main mindsets: - Entity(fixed) mindset - Incremental (growth) mindset - Growth mindset tends to believe that intellectual abilities develop over time, whereas fixed mindset believes that intellectual ability is fixed - Growth mindset believes that people's traits can change over time, whereas fixed mindset believes that people's characteristics are fixed - Growth mindset individuals are eager to learn and work towards goals, whereas fixed mindset individuals are more worried about looking smart/not dumb - Growth mindset individuals believe that effort is the key to success and growth, whereas fixed mindset individuals believe that effort signals a lack of natural talent - To growth mindset, setbacks signal the need to work harder and alter strategies; but to the fixed mindset, setbacks signal that one is not intelligent enough - Growth mindset's learning strategy consists of working harder or changing studying method; fixed mindset's learning strategy consists of giving up, cheating, and defensiveness - Parent/Educator feedback can influence a growth mindset or fixed mindset; praising a person's intelligence can induce a fixed mindset, whereas praising a person's effort can induce a growth mindset - In a study, they found that kids who received incremental mindset training did better on a post-test than those who hadn't received the training

Question 97

Differences in Men's and Women's abilities

Answer 97

- Average IQs are the same for women and men, but men tend to be more on the upper and lower ends of the spectrum than women - Men tend to be better at mental rotation and navigation, whereas women tend to be better with surface layouts - Males are more likely to have speech problems and dyslexia than females, and females tend to have better fluency, vocabulary articulation, and better writing - Females and males tend to be on the same level for math during childhood, but males tend to out-perform females at math in adolescence - All these differences however are VERY small, and the curves for each gender on ability overlaps greatly

Question 98

Differentiating Genders

Answer 98

- 6 month olds can distinguish between male and female voices and make intermodal matches on the bases of gender; expect people with long hair to have female voices, short hair to have male voices, etc - At 2 years old, children begin to form gender-related expectations about toys and activities typically associated with males and females, and they begin to label other people's gender - By age 3, kids understand their own gender identity, using 'boy', 'girl', to refer to themselves and others, and they quickly learn stereotypes associated with the different genders - By age 5, kids usually stereotype affiliate characteristics to females and assertive characteristics to males, but they lack gender constancy; they believe if a boy wears a dress, he can become a girl - At age 6, they start to have an understanding of gender constancy

Question 99

Biological Approaches to Gender Development

Answer 99

Biological Sex: depends on your chromosomes Gender: behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with one biological sex - The three biological perspectives to gender are based on 1. evolution, 2. The influence of hormones, and 3. Sex differences in the organization of the brain Evolution: - Sex differences in behavior emerged due to reproductive advantages - With the goal of creating the most viable offspring, it was most beneficial back in the cave-man-ish era for men to do things that women couldn't do while pregnant or breastfeeding, like hunt and ward off predators, while women did things that they could do while pregnant and breast-feeding (like cooking) - Genes that led to these behaviors thus got passed down since they were in highest abundance, becoming more frequent with each subsequent generation - Sexual dimorphism is also evidence of evolution playing a role in gender development - Comparative studies of play behaviors in other species show sex-differneces consistent with evolutionary perspectives; boys tend to rough-house, while girls tend to play house Sex Hormones - Gender differences in behavior reflect different ratios of male/female sex hormones - For example, higher androgen levels are correlated with higher levels of physical aggressiveness, and androgen levels are higher in males - Girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (higher levels of hormones that have androgen-like effects) tend to have more interest in rough-and-tumble play and other boy-type activities, whereas boys with androgen insensitivity tend to show more stereotypical female play Brain-Hormone Connections - Brain structure differences may originate with the influence of sex-hormones - Female fetuses that are prenatally exposed to increased levels of testosterone in the amniotic fluid tend to be better at spacial reasoning - Higher levels of estrogen are associated with better verbal skills in females

Question 100

Gender Dysphoria

Answer 100

- The belief that one's gender doesn't match the gender they're being socialized as - Suggests that gender identification may have a biological component - Also shows that changing socialization does NOT change gender identity?

Question 101

Clothing Swap Experiment

Answer 101

- Exhibits how children are influenced to a certain gender by their social environment - Took babies and put them in clothing typical of the opposite sex and had adult participants come in and play with them - The participants, no matter their actual gender, tended to offer the child toys that were more specific to the gender of the clothing they were wearing (gave a robot or a car to a baby dressed as a boy, whereas gave a doll or pink, fluffy toy to a baby dressed as a girl) - Showed that we have these subconscious tendencies to assume gender and play into gender stereotypes

Question 102

Media and Gender Stereotypes

Answer 102

- Male and Female characters in kids tv shows and cartoons tend to be portrayed in highly stereotypical ways - An experiment was conducted in which kids in a remote province of Canada that didn't have TVs were given TVs, and it was observed that their beliefs became more stereotypical after they got the TVs - For most kids, TV and the internet are major sources of information - Kids who watch a lot of TV have more highly stereotypical beliefs about males and females, and prefer gender-typed activities to kid who watch less TV

Question 103

Benefits of Having Friends

Answer 103

- Children learn new skills and develop their cognitive abilities through peer interactions - We're more open and spontaneous with peers when expressing ideas and beliefs Complex play helps develop cooperation and negotiation - Discussing emotions with friends leads to better emotional understanding later in life - Through friendship children learn about per norms via observation and peer feedback - Friends can provide a source of emotional support and security - Can provide support during transitions - Provides a buffer against unpleasant experiences -Long-term benefits include that kids K-2nd grade who have higher quality friendships tend to be less physically aggressive over time, and those who have reciprocated best friends in 5th grade were more mature and better off not only in 5th grade but also in the future in a follow-up study when they were 23

Question 104

Children's Choice in Friends

Answer 104

- Similarity of interest and behavior - Similar academic motivation and self-perception of confidence - Proximity - Similarity in age - Gender - Similar levels of depression and anxiety

Question 105

Developmental Changes in Friendship and Views on Friendship

Answer 105

- By 12-18 months, kids begin to display preferences for some children over others - They will touch preferred kids, smile more at preferred kids, and engage in positive interactions more with preferred kids - By age 2, kids social interactions start growing in complexity and it starts to become clear who a child's friends are. When playing with friends, complex skills tend to be on greater display than when playing with acquaintances - By 3-4 years, kids can make and maintain friendships with peers, and they begin engaging in pretend play with their friends, and can identify who their best friend is Side note: friendships in early childhood tend to have higher rates of positive interactions, but also higher rats of conflicts due to being around their friends so often - Kids tend to talk about conflict directly as opposed to avoiding the other person - 5 year olds have more of the same patterns of interaction with other kids when approached with conflict, but also are able to take responsibility for conflict and give reasons for conflict - An important change that occurs over time is the level and importance of intimacy in a friendship - Young kids up to about 7 years old view friendships as instrumental and concrete, seeing their best friends as the peers that they play with the most and share things with. They see their friends in terms of rewards and costs - Older children define friendships in terms of companionships, loyalty, similar interests/attitudes, trust, and truthfulness - Adolescents view friendships as context for self-exploration and working out personal problems

Question 106

Why do our Views on Friendship change?

Answer 106

- As we develop a stronger theory of mind, we become better at taking other people's perspectives into account - Changes in children's thinking about friends is qualitative (discontinuous) - Children's views on friendships change due to the child's complexity with which they view friendship changing and the way in which they describe friendship's dimensions - All these changes value reciprocity and mutuality

Question 107

Negatives of Having Friends

Answer 107

- Kids with antisocial and aggressive friends tended to develop these behaviors too over time; aggressiveness and deviance is reinforced - This is also true for alcohol use and drug use

Question 108

Bullying

Answer 108

- Main types are physical, verbal, social (purposely excluding someone from conversations or activities, spreading rumors, etc), and cyberbullying - The most prevalent seems to be Social, with the least prevalent being physical - All kids are at risk of being bullied - Kids who are bullies tend to either have a higher social status and are overly concerned by popularity, OR are more isolated from their peers, anxious, have low self-esteem, are susceptible to peer pressure, and have lower empathy - Kids who are bullied are more likely to be bullies themselves - Bullying tends to be a group phenomenon, in which there are multiple students who support each other in the bullying of other students - Kids who are bullies are more likely to later on in life have substance abuse, legal issues, and be abusive in other relationships - Kids who are victims of bullies are more likely to later on in life have depression and anxiety, have increased feelings of sadness and loneliness, have physical illnesses like changes in sleep and eating patterns, and be socially withdrawn - Expulsion does NOT help with bullying; best way to prevent bullying is through education.