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Linguistics > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Phonetics

A

Speech as a physical process

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2
Q

Phonology

A

Systems of linguistic sound structure

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3
Q

Morphology

A

The structure of words

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4
Q

Syntax

A

the structure of phrases and sentences

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5
Q

semantics

A

word meaning

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6
Q

pragmatics

A

speaker meaning

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7
Q

theoretical linguistcs

A

basic principles

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8
Q

historical linguistics

A

Language change and the reconstruction of linguistic history

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9
Q

psychological linguistcs

A

Psychology of language; language learning and language processing

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10
Q

computational linguistics

A

Algorithms for computer analysis of text and speech.

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11
Q

sociolinguistics

A

language in society

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12
Q

dialectology

A

graphical and social variation in language

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13
Q

descriptive linguistics

A

aims to create systematic descriptions of the facts of particular languages

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14
Q

language

A

pattern of human speech, and the (implicit) systems that speaking and listening rely on

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15
Q

4 types of “correctness”

A
  1. Established criteria of educated written language
  2. Issues on which educated people differ (and which may be different in written and spoken forms, or in different registers of writing and speech)
  3. Changes in the spoken language that some people resist
  4. Pure inventions of self-appointed grammarians with little or no basis in actual usage
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16
Q

Panini

A

the first linguist, Indian, from the 5th or 6th century BC
his grammar contained more than 4,000 rules, but was not written down until 100s of yrs after death
meant to preserve knowledge of the Hindu canon bc language had changed a lot and people could not understand it without study

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17
Q

goals of early grammarians

A
  1. to codify the principles of languages, so as to show the system beneath “the apparent chaos of usage”
  2. to provide a means of settling disputes over usage
  3. to “improve” the language by pointing out common errors
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18
Q

prescriptive ling as social gatekeeping

A

Certain vocabulary can distinguish between classes.
SC Ross in England: U and non-U (looking glass vs mirror)
bible example- Judges 12: Killed people when they couldn’t say shibboleth. Showed that they were the enemy
As a result of this story, we use the word “shibboleth” to mean an arbitrary linguistic marker that distinguishes one group from another.

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19
Q

linguistics vs medical disorders

A

a linguist would not tell people how to talk, just point out the studies etc. A doctor would tell people what they have to do to avoid illness
Except in communication disorders, there is no hesitation to advise after diagnosis

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20
Q

Is language change corruption?

A

No! It is a natural/inevitable process.
People try to stop the change (called diglossia), but proper and normal languages just keep getting farther apart until they are separate languages.

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21
Q

Singular their controversy

A

many believe that singular their is in violation of grammar rules but some linguists (churchyard, pinker) have argued that it is ok, it is just changing with the times

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22
Q

Cupertino effect

A

When computer generated spell checkers wrongly correct misspelled words
Cooperatino (for cooperation) became cupertino

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23
Q

Eggcorn

A

Here someone mishears a common word or phrase in a way that preserves the meaning, but gets to the meaning by a new route: “free reign” instead of “free rein”, “give up the goat” instead of “give up the ghost” – or the example that gave the phenomenon its name, “eggcorn” instead of “acorn”.

24
Q

unique things about human language

A
  1. Big vocabulary (10,000-100,000 words)
  2. Recursive compositionality
    making bigger messages by combining smaller ones,
    more complex meanings by combining simpler ones
  3. • Action to “change others’ minds”
    we know others may have different knowledge and beliefs
    we communicate to inform, persuade, etc.
25
Q

Other little things that make human language unique

A

displaced reference
doubly digital vocab (words are discrete and well individuated, words are patterns of digital sound elements (“phonemes”) )
Variability in sound system and word meanings
Singing/chanting

26
Q

human linguistic process?

A

No “primitive language” in terms of sound, word, and sentence structure
there is variation in linguistic complexity
vocab tends to grow

27
Q

spontaneous communication among non-human primates

A

limited to small amount of signals

reference is immediate

28
Q

With training animals can learn more

A

Can be taught to make sounds or gestures referring to something
easier for them to associate sounds/gestures with objects
It can look at lot like human communication which is why it is weird that we are the only ones that can communicate like this

29
Q

theory of mind

A

To attribute beliefs, knowledge and emotions to both oneself and others

30
Q

animal’s theory of mind

A 
Gaze following
• Attention-getting behavior
• Cooperative action
• Deception, empathy, grudging, reconciliation,
etc. …
• Argument by analogy: “when we do X, we
attribute knowledge and beliefs to others, so
when animals do X, they make similar
attributions”
31
Q

evolution of language

A

Possible evolutionary adaptations for (spoken) language:
• larynx lowering/pharynx expansion
• sexual dimorphism in larynx size and position
• pitch perception and speech perception more generally
• speech motor control
• general and specific brain expansion
• Functional localization in Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas

32
Q

If language is so great,

why doesn’t every species get one?

A

It’s too expensive, relative to the benefits
• e.g. in terms of brain tissue requirements
– It’s hard to get started
• e.g. requires an unlikely evolutionary “invention”
– not just an extension of animal communication systems
• or, “early releases” are not very useful
– “theory of mind” lacking
– displaced reference can be confusing

33
Q

About how many words do humans learn per day, on average?

A

10

34
Q

The phonological principle

A

A word’s pronunciation is defined as a structured combination of a small set of elements
The available phonological elements and structures are the same for all words (though each word uses only some of them)
The phonological system is defined in terms of patterns of mouth gestures and noisesi
This “grounding” of the system is called phonetic interpretation
Phonetic interpretation is the same for all words

35
Q

three basic modes of sound production in the human vocal tract that play a role in speech

A

the buzz of vibrating vocal cords, the hiss of air pushed past a constriction, and the pop of a closure released

36
Q

Bell’s physical speech

A

writing system to be a teaching and learning tool for helping deaf students learn spoken language. However, Visible Speech was more than a pedagogical tool for deaf education – it was the first system for notating the sounds of speech independent of the choice of particular language or dialect
his sons would travel and ask someone to say something, and one would come back in the room and repeat it from reading

37
Q

Morphology vs syntax in plurality

A

Syntax can be used in place of morphology but is more involved
dogs can just be more than one dog

38
Q

the cookbook problem (syntax)

A

key words can tell you that it is a cookbook, or the kinds of food you’re making, but not how to make them

39
Q

the principle of compositionality

A

language is intricately structured, and linguistic messages are interpreted, layer by layer, in a way that depends on their structure.

40
Q

Frege and Russell

A

philosopher-logicians who first worked out the concept of syntax-directed translation in logic and computer science (like the pemdas) in order to provide a formal way to define the meaning of mathematical expressions and mathematical reasoning.

41
Q

why bother with syntax

A

The layered (recursive) structures of syntax allow us to communicate an infinity of complex and specific meanings, using a few general methods for building phrases with more complex meanings out of phrases with simpler ones

42
Q

hyponymy

A

“inclusion of meaning” (cat is a hyponym of anima

43
Q

incompatibility

A

“mutual exclusiveness within the same superordinate category” (e.g. red and green)

44
Q

homonymy

A

two words are homonyms if they are (accidentally) pronounced the same (e.g. “too” and “two”)

45
Q

polysemy

A

a single word is polysemous if it has several meanings (e.g. “louse” the bug and “louse” the despicable person).

46
Q

types of direct speech acts

A

Assertions, question, order/request

47
Q

assertion

A

declarative, conveys information, is true or false

ex: Jenny got an A on her test

48
Q

Question

A

interrogative, elicits information

Ex: Did Jenny get an A on her test?

49
Q

Orders and requests

A

imperitive causes others to behave in certain ways

Ex: Get an A on that test!

50
Q

Indirect speech acts

A

Another way to ask if Jenny got an A would be:
Do you know if Jenny got an A?
The answer would be Yes, she did. But that is the speech act meaning, not the literal meaning.
Or in terms of requests: Would you mind closing the window? Instead of just Close the window.

51
Q

Performatives

A

Can be used with the three direct speech acts:
I assert that Jenny got an A
I ask you if Jenny got an A
I request that you get an A
OR can be used with other phrases too ( I warn you, I recommend, I promise)

52
Q

More speech acts added by researchers

A

answering, accept, reject,

53
Q

H.P. Grice

A

aim was to understand how “speaker’s meaning” – what someone uses an utterance to mean – arises from “sentence meaning” – the literal (form and) meaning of an utterance. Grice proposed that many aspects of “speaker’s meaning” result from the assumption that the participants in a conversation are cooperating in an attempt to reach mutual goals – or at least are pretending to do so! (cooperative principle)

54
Q

Cooperative Principle

A

(1) The maxim of quality. Speakers’ contributions ought to be true.
(2) The maxim of quantity. Speakers’ contributions should be as informative as required; not saying either too little or too much.
(3) The maxim of relevance. Contributions should relate to the purposes of the exchange.
(4) The maxim of manner. Contributions should be perspicuous – in particular, they should be orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity.

55
Q

predicate-argument structure

A

who did what to whom

Linguistics (1 decks)

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