Midterm

Question 1

Phonetics

Answer 1

Speech as a physical process

Question 2

Phonology

Answer 2

Systems of linguistic sound structure

Question 3

Morphology

Answer 3

The structure of words

Question 4

Syntax

Answer 4

the structure of phrases and sentences

Question 5

semantics

Answer 5

word meaning

Question 6

pragmatics

Answer 6

speaker meaning

Question 7

theoretical linguistcs

Answer 7

basic principles

Question 8

historical linguistics

Answer 8

Language change and the reconstruction of linguistic history

Question 9

psychological linguistcs

Answer 9

Psychology of language; language learning and language processing

Question 10

computational linguistics

Answer 10

Algorithms for computer analysis of text and speech.

Question 11

sociolinguistics

Answer 11

language in society

Question 12

dialectology

Answer 12

graphical and social variation in language

Question 13

descriptive linguistics

Answer 13

aims to create systematic descriptions of the facts of particular languages

Question 14

language

Answer 14

pattern of human speech, and the (implicit) systems that speaking and listening rely on

Question 15

4 types of “correctness”

Answer 15

1. Established criteria of educated written language
2. Issues on which educated people differ (and which may be different in written and spoken forms, or in different registers of writing and speech)
3. Changes in the spoken language that some people resist
4. Pure inventions of self-appointed grammarians with little or no basis in actual usage

Question 16

Panini

Answer 16

the first linguist, Indian, from the 5th or 6th century BC
his grammar contained more than 4,000 rules, but was not written down until 100s of yrs after death
meant to preserve knowledge of the Hindu canon bc language had changed a lot and people could not understand it without study

Question 17

goals of early grammarians

Answer 17

1. to codify the principles of languages, so as to show the system beneath “the apparent chaos of usage”
2. to provide a means of settling disputes over usage
3. to “improve” the language by pointing out common errors

Question 18

prescriptive ling as social gatekeeping

Answer 18

Certain vocabulary can distinguish between classes.
SC Ross in England: U and non-U (looking glass vs mirror)
bible example- Judges 12: Killed people when they couldn’t say shibboleth. Showed that they were the enemy
As a result of this story, we use the word “shibboleth” to mean an arbitrary linguistic marker that distinguishes one group from another.

Question 19

linguistics vs medical disorders

Answer 19

a linguist would not tell people how to talk, just point out the studies etc. A doctor would tell people what they have to do to avoid illness
Except in communication disorders, there is no hesitation to advise after diagnosis

Question 20

Is language change corruption?

Answer 20

No! It is a natural/inevitable process.
People try to stop the change (called diglossia), but proper and normal languages just keep getting farther apart until they are separate languages.

Question 21

Singular their controversy

Answer 21

many believe that singular their is in violation of grammar rules but some linguists (churchyard, pinker) have argued that it is ok, it is just changing with the times

Question 22

Cupertino effect

Answer 22

When computer generated spell checkers wrongly correct misspelled words
Cooperatino (for cooperation) became cupertino

Question 23

Eggcorn

Answer 23

Here someone mishears a common word or phrase in a way that preserves the meaning, but gets to the meaning by a new route: “free reign” instead of “free rein”, “give up the goat” instead of “give up the ghost” – or the example that gave the phenomenon its name, “eggcorn” instead of “acorn”.

Question 24

unique things about human language

Answer 24

1. Big vocabulary (10,000-100,000 words)
2. Recursive compositionality
   making bigger messages by combining smaller ones,
   more complex meanings by combining simpler ones
3. • Action to “change others’ minds”
   we know others may have different knowledge and beliefs
   we communicate to inform, persuade, etc.

Question 25

Other little things that make human language unique

Answer 25

displaced reference doubly digital vocab (words are discrete and well individuated, words are patterns of digital sound elements (“phonemes”) ) Variability in sound system and word meanings Singing/chanting

Question 26

human linguistic process?

Answer 26

No "primitive language" in terms of sound, word, and sentence structure there is variation in linguistic complexity vocab tends to grow

Question 27

spontaneous communication among non-human primates

Answer 27

limited to small amount of signals | reference is immediate

Question 28

With training animals can learn more

Answer 28

Can be taught to make sounds or gestures referring to something easier for them to associate sounds/gestures with objects It can look at lot like human communication which is why it is weird that we are the only ones that can communicate like this

Question 29

theory of mind

Answer 29

To attribute beliefs, knowledge and emotions to both oneself and others

Question 30

animal's theory of mind

Answer 30

``` Gaze following • Attention-getting behavior • Cooperative action • Deception, empathy, grudging, reconciliation, etc. … • Argument by analogy: “when we do X, we attribute knowledge and beliefs to others, so when animals do X, they make similar attributions” ```

Question 31

evolution of language

Answer 31

Possible evolutionary adaptations for (spoken) language: • larynx lowering/pharynx expansion • sexual dimorphism in larynx size and position • pitch perception and speech perception more generally • speech motor control • general and specific brain expansion • Functional localization in Broca's and Wernicke's areas

Question 32

If language is so great, | why doesn’t every species get one?

Answer 32

It’s too expensive, relative to the benefits • e.g. in terms of brain tissue requirements – It’s hard to get started • e.g. requires an unlikely evolutionary “invention” – not just an extension of animal communication systems • or, “early releases” are not very useful – “theory of mind” lacking – displaced reference can be confusing

Question 33

About how many words do humans learn per day, on average?

Answer 33

10

Question 34

The phonological principle

Answer 34

A word's pronunciation is defined as a structured combination of a small set of elements The available phonological elements and structures are the same for all words (though each word uses only some of them) The phonological system is defined in terms of patterns of mouth gestures and noisesi This "grounding" of the system is called phonetic interpretation Phonetic interpretation is the same for all words

Question 35

three basic modes of sound production in the human vocal tract that play a role in speech

Answer 35

the buzz of vibrating vocal cords, the hiss of air pushed past a constriction, and the pop of a closure released

Question 36

Bell's physical speech

Answer 36

writing system to be a teaching and learning tool for helping deaf students learn spoken language. However, Visible Speech was more than a pedagogical tool for deaf education -- it was the first system for notating the sounds of speech independent of the choice of particular language or dialect his sons would travel and ask someone to say something, and one would come back in the room and repeat it from reading

Question 37

Morphology vs syntax in plurality

Answer 37

Syntax can be used in place of morphology but is more involved dogs can just be more than one dog

Question 38

the cookbook problem (syntax)

Answer 38

key words can tell you that it is a cookbook, or the kinds of food you're making, but not how to make them

Question 39

the principle of compositionality

Answer 39

language is intricately structured, and linguistic messages are interpreted, layer by layer, in a way that depends on their structure.

Question 40

Frege and Russell

Answer 40

philosopher-logicians who first worked out the concept of syntax-directed translation in logic and computer science (like the pemdas) in order to provide a formal way to define the meaning of mathematical expressions and mathematical reasoning.

Question 41

why bother with syntax

Answer 41

The layered (recursive) structures of syntax allow us to communicate an infinity of complex and specific meanings, using a few general methods for building phrases with more complex meanings out of phrases with simpler ones

Question 42

hyponymy

Answer 42

"inclusion of meaning" (cat is a hyponym of anima

Question 43

incompatibility

Answer 43

"mutual exclusiveness within the same superordinate category" (e.g. red and green)

Question 44

homonymy

Answer 44

two words are homonyms if they are (accidentally) pronounced the same (e.g. "too" and "two")

Question 45

polysemy

Answer 45

a single word is polysemous if it has several meanings (e.g. "louse" the bug and "louse" the despicable person).

Question 46

types of direct speech acts

Answer 46

Assertions, question, order/request

Question 47

assertion

Answer 47

declarative, conveys information, is true or false | ex: Jenny got an A on her test

Question 48

Question

Answer 48

interrogative, elicits information | Ex: Did Jenny get an A on her test?

Question 49

Orders and requests

Answer 49

imperitive causes others to behave in certain ways | Ex: Get an A on that test!

Question 50

Indirect speech acts

Answer 50

Another way to ask if Jenny got an A would be: Do you know if Jenny got an A? The answer would be Yes, she did. But that is the speech act meaning, not the literal meaning. Or in terms of requests: Would you mind closing the window? Instead of just Close the window.

Question 51

Performatives

Answer 51

Can be used with the three direct speech acts: I assert that Jenny got an A I ask you if Jenny got an A I request that you get an A OR can be used with other phrases too ( I warn you, I recommend, I promise)

Question 52

More speech acts added by researchers

Answer 52

answering, accept, reject,

Question 53

H.P. Grice

Answer 53

aim was to understand how "speaker's meaning" -- what someone uses an utterance to mean -- arises from "sentence meaning" -- the literal (form and) meaning of an utterance. Grice proposed that many aspects of "speaker's meaning" result from the assumption that the participants in a conversation are cooperating in an attempt to reach mutual goals -- or at least are pretending to do so! (cooperative principle)

Question 54

Cooperative Principle

Answer 54

(1) The maxim of quality. Speakers' contributions ought to be true. (2) The maxim of quantity. Speakers' contributions should be as informative as required; not saying either too little or too much. (3) The maxim of relevance. Contributions should relate to the purposes of the exchange. (4) The maxim of manner. Contributions should be perspicuous -- in particular, they should be orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity.

Question 55

predicate-argument structure

Answer 55

who did what to whom