Midterm Flashcards
(344 cards)
1
Q
theorized that studying bumps on human heads reveal a person’s mental capabilities. Although incorrect, it focused attention on the localization of function
A
Franz Gail → Phrenology
2
Q
Parts of a neuron (5)
A
cell body dendrites axon myelin sheath terminal branches of axon
3
Q
a nerve cell being the building block of the nervous system
A
neuron
4
Q
a neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
A
dendrites
5
Q
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or muscles/glands
A
axon
6
Q
dendrites listen, axons speak
A
.
7
Q
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; increases the speed of information transfer within a neuron
A
myelin sheath
8
Q
what happens when myelin sheaths decreas?
A
Multiple Sclerosis occurs → communication to muscles slows with eventual loss of muscle control
9
Q
what are the 4 steps of a neural impulse
A
- a neuron is fired, the gates open and positively charged ions flood in
- depolarization causes the next gate to open
- action potential → like dominos
- refractory period
10
Q
a neural impulse that produces a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon, happens after a neuron is fired
A
action potential
11
Q
when an axon’s fluid interior is mostly negative charged ions and the fluid outside the membrane is mostly positive charged ions
A
resting potential
12
Q
the loss of inside/outside charge difference
A
depolarization
13
Q
a period of inactivity after the neuron has fired → the neuron pumps the positively charged ions back outside so it can be fired again
A
refractory period
14
Q
the level of stimulation required to trigger an impulse
A
threshold
15
Q
a neuron’s reaction is either firing with full strength, or not at all → a strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, but it does not affect the action potential’s strength/speed
A
all-or-none response
16
Q
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
A
synapse
17
Q
released when action potential reaches the knob like terminals at the axons end. They are the messengers that cross the synaptic gaps and bind to receptor sites of the receiving neuron
A
neurotransmitters
18
Q
excess neurotransmitters are broken down into enzymes, or are reabsorbed by the sending neuron
A
reuptake
19
Q
molecules that increase the neurotransmitters action. May increase the production of neurotransmitters, block reuptake in the synapse, or be similar enough to a neurotransmitters to mimic its effects
A
agonist
20
Q
how neurons communicate
A
- electrical impulses travel down axon until reaching synapse
- the action potential reaches the axon’s end (presynaptic membrane) and releases a neurotransmitter
- neurotransmitter cross the synapse and bind to receiving neuron’s dendrites (post synaptic membrane)
- excess neurotransmitters go through reuptake
21
Q
concerned with the links between biology and behaviour. Includes psychologists working in neuroscience, behaviour genetics, and evolutionary psychology
A
biological perspective
22
Q
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking and memory
A
glial cells
23
Q
neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning and memory. With Alzheimer’s disease, AChproducing neurons deteriorate
A
Acetylcholine
24
Q
neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Oversupply linked to schizophrenia. Undersupply linked to tremors and loss of motor control in Parkinson’s disease
A
Dopamine
25
neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression. Some drugs that raise levels are used to treat depression
Serotonin
26
neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal. Undersupply can depress mood
Norephinephrine
27
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors and insomnia
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acis)
28
a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migranes or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG)
Glutamate
29
the two functional divisions of the nervous system
peripheral nervous system
| central nervous system
30
the brain and spinal cord
central nervous system
31
responsible for gathering information and for transmitting CNS decisions to other body parts
peripheral nervous system
32
electrical cables formed of bundles of axons that link the CNS with the body's sensory receptors, muscles and glands
nerves
33
three types of neurons that travel through the nervous system
sensory (afferent) neurons
motor (efferent) neurons
interneurons
34
neurons that carry information from the body tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal chord for processing
sensory (afferent) neurons
35
neurons that carry instructions from the CNS to the muscles and glands
motor (efferent) neurons
36
neurons within the brain and spinal cord, process information between sensory and motor neurons
interneurons
37
two components of the peripheral nervous system
somatic nervous system
| automatic nervous system
38
voluntary control of skeletal muscles
somatic nervous system
39
controls our glands and internal organ muscles (such as the heart) that is self regulating
automatic nervous system
40
two functions of the automatic nervous system
sympathetic nervous system
| parasympathetic nervous system
41
arouses you and expends energy by accelerating heartbeat, raising blood pressure, slowing digestion, raising blood sugar
sympathetic nervous system
42
conserves energy as it calms you down
parasympathetic nervous system
43
what do the sympathetic and parasympathetic system work together to do?
keep us in a homeostasis state
44
two parts of the central nervous system
neural networks
| spinal cord
45
brain's neurons cluster together into work groups
neural networks
46
two-way information system connecting the peripheral nervous system and the brain
spinal cord
47
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
reflex
48
the steps of a simple reflex
1. information is carried from skin receptors along a sensory neuron to the spinal cord
2. then it is passed through interneurons to the muscles in the hand and arm
3. the hand jerks away before information about the event reach your brain because the pathway runs through the spinal cord
49
how is information inputed to the nervous system
through transducers
50
three main types of transducers
thermal
mechanical
chemical
51
transducers for hot and cold temperature sensation
thermal transducers
52
transducers for touch, pressure, hearing and balance
mechanical transducers
53
transducers for vision and smell
chemical transducers
54
seven types of information processed in the brain
```
sensation
perception
attention
memory
comparison
decision
emotion
```
55
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, influencing our sex drive, hunger and aggression. Slower than the central neural system
endocrine system
56
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues
hormones
57
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress and danger
adrenal glands
58
the most influential endocrine gland, a pea-sized structure located in the core of the brain, controlled by the hypothalamus. It releases a growth hormone that stimulates physical development
pituitary gland
59
an endocrine gland that enables contractions associated with birthing, milk flow during nursing and orgasms. Also promotes pair bonding, group cohesion and social trust
oxytocin
60
the connection between the nervous and endocrine system
brain → pituitary → other glands → hormones → body and brain
61
tissue destruction, a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain cells
lesion
62
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brains surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
electroecephalogram (EEG)
63
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
64
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue (showing brain anatomy)
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
65
a technique for revealing blood flow and brain activity by ng successive MRI scans (show brain function and structure)
fMRI (functional MRI)
66
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions
brainstem
67
the four parts of the older brain structure, all function without conscious effort
the brainstem (medulla and pons)
the reticular formation
the thalamus
the cerebellum
68
the base of the brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing
medulla
69
just above the medulla, helping coordinate movements and control sleep
pons
70
sitting above the brainstem, receives information from all the senses except smell, directing messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex, and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
thalamus
71
inside the brainstem between the ears, travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
reticular formation
72
back of the brainstem looking like two wrinkled half brains, processes sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enables nonverbal learning/memory
cerebellum
73
neural system located between the old and new brain
the limbic system
74
three parts of the limbic system
hypothalamus
amygdala
hippocampus
75
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
cerebellum
76
two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
amygdala
77
a neural structure lying below the thalamus, directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp) and helps govern the endocrine system via pituitary gland
hypothalamus
78
a neural center located in the limbic system, helps process explicit memories for storage
hippocampus
79
three parts of the brainstem
reticular formation
pons
medulla
80
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
cerebral cortex
81
the four lobes of the hemisphere's cortex, starting at the front and moving over the top
frontal lobes
parietal lobes
occipital lobes
temporal lobes
82
lobe involved in speaking/muscle movements and in making plans and judgement
frontal lobes
83
lobe that receives sensory input for touch and body position
parietal lobes
84
lobe that receives information from the visual fields
occipital lobes
85
lying roughly above the ears, the lobe that receives information primarily from the opposite ear
temporal lobes
86
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
motor cortex
87
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. The more sensitive the body region, the larger the area devoted to it will be
somatosensory cortex
88
any visual information you receive is going to the visual cortex in your occipital lobes or any sound you hear is processed by your auditory cortex in your temporal lobea
examples of the somatosensory cortex
89
areas if the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking. Simple tasks increase activity in small patches while complex tasks integrate many different patches
association areas
90
frontal lobe damage can alter personality and remove a person's inhibitions or how the underside of the right temporal lobe enables us to recognize faces
examples of association areas
91
the brain's ability to modify itself after damage
plasticity
92
therapists force patients to use their bad hand or leg, gradually reprogramming the brain
example of plasticity
93
the formation of new neurons
neurogenesis
94
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
corpus callosum
95
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them
split brain
96
language, scientific reasoning, mathematics (arithmetic)
left hemisphere
97
holistic thinking → spatial processing (mapping), face recognition, music, art, intuition, skilled behaviours
right hemisphere
98
two basic types of neurotransmitters
excitatory
| inhibitory
99
neurotransmitters that trigger a positive charge in membrane potential in that neuron
excitatory neurotransmitters
100
neurotransmitters that trigger a negative charge in the membrane potential
inhibitory neurotransmitters
101
the sympathetic system is faster to respond than the parasympathetic system
.
102
our awareness of ourselves and our environment, a process which allows us to exert voluntary control over ourselves and a way of communicating mental states
consciousness
103
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with our mental processes (relating specific brain states to conscious experience)
cognitive neuroscience
104
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
dual processing
105
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
blindsight
106
enables us to "to think about the world" → to recognize things and to plan future actions
visual perception track
107
our moment to moment movements
visual action track
108
in everyday life, we mostly function like an automatic camera, but with a manual (conscious) override
.
109
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions → enables your mind to take care of routine business and is faster than sequential processing
parallel processing
110
best for solving new problems, which requires our focused attention
sequential processing
111
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
selective attention
112
when you are focused on one person's voice but are immediately brought to the attention of another voice when they call your name
cocktail party effect
113
failing to see a visible object when are attention is directed elsewhere
inattentional blindness
114
failing to notice changes to your environment when focused on one thing
change blindness
115
participants failed to notice a change in voice when asked to repeat the list of words
change deafness
116
periodic, natural loss of consciousness
sleep
117
the biological clock that occurs on a 24 hour cycle, can be altered by age and experience
circadian rhythm
118
how our body synchronizes with circadian rhythm
during the morning → our body temperature rises
during the day → our body temperature peaks
during the early afternoon → our body temperature dips
during the evening → our body temperature drops
119
a recurring sleep stage when dreams commonly occur
REM or paradoxical sleep
120
the relatively slow brain waves of relaxed, awake state
alpha waves
121
slowed breathing and irregular brain waves, brief and may experience hallucinations → sensation of falling
non-REM stage 1 → NREM-1
122
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
hallucinations
123
20 minutes of periodic sleep spindles, can still be awakened without too much difficulty but still asleep
NREM-2
124
burts of rapid, rhythmic brain wave activity
sleep spindles
125
deep sleep, your brain emits large, slow delta waves and you are hard to awaken
NREM-3
126
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
delta waves
127
happens about an hour after you fall asleep for about 10 minutes, returning through NREM-3, brain waves become rapid and saw-toothed, your heart rate rises, breathing becomes rapid and irregular, every half minute your eyes move around, your genitals become aroused and your brain's motor cortex is active but its messages are blocked
REM sleep
128
how long does a REM sleep cycle last?
around 90 minutes for younger adults, as the night wears on, deep NREM-3 sleep grows shorter and disappears and the REM and NREM-2 periods get longer
129
the tendency for REM sleep to increase after REM sleep deprivation
REM rebound
130
sleep patterns are genetically and culturally influenced
.
131
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, it causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying out feelings of sleepiness
suprachiasmatic nucleus
132
the five reasons sleep exists
```
protects
helps us recuperate
helps restore and rebuild our fading memories of the day's experiences
feeds creative thinking
supports growth
```
133
animals with the greatest need to graze and the least ability to hide tend to sleep less. Also tend to sleep less during mating and migration
example of how sleep protects
134
helps restore the immune system, repair brain tissue, and gives resting neurons time to repair themselves
sleep helps us recuperate
135
during deep sleep, the pituitary gland releases a growth hormone that is necessary for muscle development
sleep supports growth
136
seven benefits of a healthy sleep
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improved athletic ability
we awake refreshed
sustain better moods
perform more efficient and accurate work
more satisfied with personal life
less conflicts with personal relationships
healthier immune system
```
137
four reasons why sleep deprivation makes you gain weight
increases ghrelin (hunger arousing hormone) and decreases leptin (hunger suppressing hormone)
decreases metabolic rate, a gauge of energy use
increases cortisol, hormone that stimulates the body to make fat
enhances limbic system responses to the mere sight of food and decreases cortisol inhibition
138
five things that sleep deprivation increases
```
risk of depression
production of fat cells
inflammation of joints
risk of high blood pressure
hunger arousing hormones (ghrelin)
```
139
five things that sleep deprivation decrease
```
ability to focus
ability to process and store memories
production of immune cells
hunger suppressing hormones (leptin)
strength, reaction time and motor learning
```
140
five major sleep disorders
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insomnia
narcolepsy
sleep apnea
night terrors
sleepwalking
```
141
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
insomnia
142
a brain disease where you have uncontrollable sleep attacks falling right into REM sleep, often at inappropriate times
narcolepsy
143
intermittently stop breathing during sleep, repeating hundreds of times a night. associated with obesity, daytime sleepiness, irritability, high blood pressure
sleep apnea
144
targets mostly children, characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified → unlike nightmares. Occur during NREM-3 sleep and are seldom remembered
night terrors
145
a sequence of images, emotions and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
dreams
146
five proposed explanations of why we dream
```
Freud's wish fulfillment
information processing
physiological function
activation synthesis theory or neural activation
cognitive perspective
```
147
preserve sleep and provide a "psychic safety valve" → expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest content and a deeper layer of latent content. Believed that most adult dreams could be traced back by analysis to erotic wishes
Freud's wish fulfillment
148
the remembered story line of a dream
manifest content
149
underlying meaning of a dream → the unconscious drives and wishes that would be threatening if expressed
latent content
150
a gun might be a disguised representation of a penis
example of Freud's wish fulfillment
151
help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories
information processing
152
objection for Freud's wish fulfillment
lacks scientific support → dreams may be interpreted in many different ways
153
objection for information processing
we dream things we have not experienced
154
to develop and preserve neural pathways → provide the sleeping brain with periodic stimulation
physiological function
155
objection to physiological function
why do we experience meaningful dreams
156
REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories that our sleeping brain weaves into stories
activation synthesis theory or neural activation
157
content reflects dreamers' level of knowledge and understanding → simulates our lives and dramatizes our wishes, fears, concerns and interests in striking scenarios that we experience in real events
cognitive perspective
158
objection to neural activation
the individual's brain is weaving the stories which still tells us something about the dreamer
159
objection to cognitive development
does not propose an adaptive function of dreams
160
continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption or physical risk
substance use disorder
161
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
psychoactive drug
162
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
tolerance
163
the user's brain chemistry adapts to offset the drug effect
neuroadaptation
164
the person craves and uses the substance despite its adverse consequences
addiction
165
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing and addictive drug or behaviour
withdrawal
166
three types of psychoactive drugs
depressants
stimulants
hallucinogens
167
drugs that calm neural activity and slow body functions
depressants
168
alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers) and opiates
examples of depressants
169
slows brain activity that control judgement and inhibitions
disinhibitors
170
four effects of alcohol
slowed neural processing
memory disruption
reduced self-awareness and self-control
expectancy effects
171
makes you feel relaxed as it slows the sympathetic nervous system's activity
slowed neural processing
172
kills nerve cells and reduces the birth of new ones, while impairing the growth of synaptic connections. Can have long term effects on brain and cognition
memory disruption
173
why can't people remember anything from blackouts?
alcohol suppresses REM sleep which helps fix the day's experiences into permanent memories
174
alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal and a drive to continue problematic use. Can shrink the brain
alcohol use disorder or alcoholism
175
three ways women are affected more by alcohol
they have less of a stomach enzyme that digests alcohol
can become addicted more quickly
are at higher risk for lung, brain and liver damage at lower consumption levels
176
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement. Sometimes prescribed to induce sleep or reduce anxiety
barbiturates (tranquilizers)
177
depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. During use, pupils constrict, breathing slows and sets of blissful pleasure replace pain and anxiety
opiates
178
excites neural activity and speeds up body functions. Pupils dilate, heart and breathing rates increase, blood sugar levels rise, drop in appetite, energy and confidence rise. Used to feel alert, lose weight, or boost mood or athletic performance
stimulants
179
caffeine, nicotine, the amphetamines, cocaine, methamphetamine (speed), and Ecstasy
examples of stimulants
180
codeine, morphine, methadone and heroin
examples of opiates
181
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speed up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
the amphetamines
182
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
nicotine
183
what happens when you smoke a cigarette?
1. within 7 seconds, the central nervous system is signaled to release a flood of neurotransmitters
2. epinephrine and norepinephrine diminish appetite and boost alertness and mental efficiency
3. dopamine and opioids calm anxiety and reduce pain
184
produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria and blocks reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine
cocaine
185
triggers the release of dopamine, which stimulates the brain cells to enhance energy and mood
methamphetmaine
186
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen, triggers dopamine release and releases stored serotonin and blocks its reuptake
ecstasy
187
distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
hallucinogens
188
three experience stages of hallucinogens
1. begins with simple geometric forms → cobwebs or spirals
2. moves onto move meaningful images → images placed in tunnels or funnels or replays of past emotional experiences
3. hallucinations reach its peak → feel separated from their body and experiences realistic dreamlike scenes that can cause panic or harm
189
common visions during near-death experiences
vision tunnels, bright lights, replay of old memories and out of body sensations
190
a synthetic powerful hallucinogenic drug
LCD or acid
191
the major active ingredient in marijuana; mild hallucinogen that amplifies sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes
marijuana
192
two pleasurable effects of alcohol (depressant)
initial high
| relaxation and disinhibition
193
four negative effects of alcohol (depressant)
depression
memory loss
organ damage
impaired reactions
194
two pleasurable effects of heroin (depressant)
rush of euphoria
| relief from pain
195
two negative effects of heroin (depressant)
depressed physiology
| agonizing withdrawal
196
pleasurable effect of caffeine (stimulant)
increased alertness
197
four negative effects of caffeine (stimulant)
anxiety
restlessness
insomnia in high doses
uncomfortable withdrawal
198
three pleasurable effects of nicotine (stimulant)
arousal
relaxation
sense of well being
199
two negative effects of nicotine (stimulant)
heart disease
| cancer
200
three pleasurable effects of cocaine (stimulant)
rush of euphoria
confidence
energy
201
three negative effects of cocaine (stimulant)
cardiovascular stress
suspiciousness
depressive crash
202
three pleasurable effects of methamphetamine (stimulant)
euphoria
alertness
energy
203
four negative effects of methamphetamine (stimulant)
irritability
insomnia
hypertension
seizures
204
two pleasurable effects of ecstasy (stimulant and mild hallucinogen)
emotional elevation
| disinhibition
205
four negative effects of ecstasy (stimulant and mild hallucinogen)
dehydration
overheating
depressed mood
impaired cognitive and immune functioning
206
pleasurable effect of LSD (hallucinogen)
visual "trip"
207
negative effect of LSD (hallucinogen)
risk of panic and self harm
208
four pleasurable effects of marijuana (mild hallucinogen)
enhanced sensation
relief of pain
distortion of time
relaxation
209
three negative effects of marijuana (mild hallucinogen)
impaired learning and memory
increase risk of psychological disorders
lung damage
210
three types of influences on disordered drug use
biological influences
social-cultural influences
psychological influences
211
two biological influences on disorder drug use
genetic predispositions
| variations in neurotransmitter systems
212
three social-cultural influences on disorder drug use
difficult environment
cultural acceptance of drug use
negative peer influences
213
three psychological influences on disorder drug use
lacking sense of purpose
significant stress
psychological disorders, such as depression
214
as we become more practiced at a task, the task becomes more automatic and requires less conscious effort
skilled behaviour
215
when we are awake, how we usually see the world, hear, reason and remember
normal states of consciousness
216
sleep, dreams, daydreams, hypnotic states, chemically induced states, near death experiences
altered states of consciousness
217
sleep is regulated by 2 types of biological rhythms
endogenous rhythms
| exogenous rhythms
218
the stronger of the two rhythms and are controlled by an internal body clock, but are calibrated or adjusted by means of exogenous time cues. Also controls body functions including core temperature and metabolism
endogenous rhythms
219
controlled by external time givers (lightness and darkness or social cues like dinner time)
exogenous rhythms
220
the study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behaviour
behaviour genetics
221
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
environment
222
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
chromosome
223
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
224
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins → small segments of the giant DNA molecules
Genes
225
contents of a human cell
human cell → nucleus → chromosomes → DNA → genes
226
the complete instructions for making an organism consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
genome
227
develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, thus sharing the same genes → genetically identical
identical twins
228
two differences that can occur between identical twins
they don't always have the same number of copies of genes
| one twin's placenta may have a higher nourishment than the other
229
develop from two separate fertilized eggs, no more similar than brothers and sisters
fraternal twins
230
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, quickly apparent and genetically influenced
temperament
231
the extent to which variation among individuals can be attributed to differing genes
heritability
232
studies the molecular structure and function of genes
molecular biology
233
the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behaviour → goal is to find some of the many genes that together orchestrate complex traits such as body weight, sexual orientation and impulsivity
molecular behaviour genetics
234
studies the molecular mechanisms by which environments can trigger or block genetic expression
epigenetics
235
an African butterfly that is green in summer turns brown in fall, thanks to a temperature-controlled genetic switch. The same genes that produced green in one situation will produce brown in another
example of how genes are self regulating
236
laid down by our experiences, often organic methyl molecules attached to part of a DNA strand. If it instructs the cell to ignore any gene present in that DNA segment, those genes will be turned off
epigenetic marks
237
prevents DNA from producing the proteins normally coded by that gene
gene is "turned off"
238
"things written in pen you can't change. That's DNA. Things written in pencil you can. That's epigenetics"
.
239
what can effect the epigenetic molecules that regulate gene expression?
environmental factors such as diet, drugs and stress
240
focuses mostly on what makes us so much alike as humans
evolutionary psychologists
241
the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
natural selection
242
random errors in gene replication
mutations
243
our ability to survive and reproduce
fitness
244
the inner area of a cell that houses chromosomes and genes
nucleus
245
an interdisciplinary field which looks for evolutionary explanations for social behaviours in animals and humans
sociobiology
246
compares human behaviour with behaviours observed in other organisms
comparitive psychology
247
believed that heredity was the primary factor in determining behaviour (nature)
Thorndike (1903)
248
believed that we basically come into the world as a blank slate and that what makes people different is the unique experiences we each have over our lifetimes (nurture)
Watson, Freud and Skinner (1925)
249
believed that behaviour is determined entirely by experimental factors since birth
Carl Jung (Freud's student)
250
sucking and grasping, attraction to novel stimuli, desire to explore and manipulate objects, play, fooling around, intimidating others, basic arithmetic, language acquisition
examples of innate behaviours
251
behaviours that are not learned
innate behaviours
252
heterosexual men often misperceive a woman's friendliness as a sexual come on → more typical in men who require little emotion closeness for sex
sexual over perception bias
253
why do women tend to be choosier than men when selecting sexual partners?
women have more at stake, they have to conceive and protect a fetus. Also are limited to how many children they can have
254
why are women attracted to tall men with slim waists and broad shoulders?
all signs of reproductive success, prefer men who will offer joint support and protection
255
culture's guide to how people should act in certain situations
social script
256
think that sex with strangers is dangerous or that men wanting casual sex will not offer much pleasure
examples of social script
257
does parenting matter?
its largest effects are at the extremes → abused children who become abusive, neglected that become neglectful, the love that become self confident and socially competent
258
kids seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests
selection effect
259
behaviours, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and passed on through generations
culture
260
rules for accepted and expected behaviour
norms
261
when we don't understand what's expected or accepted
culture shock
262
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identification
individualism
263
where is individualism valued more?
North America, Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand
264
giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly
collectivism
265
provide a sense of belonging, a set of values, and an assurance of security in collectivist cultures
group identification
266
three things that contribute to individualism countries
voluntary migration
capitalist economy
sparsely populated environment
267
studying how neurobiology and cultural traits influence each other
cultural neuroscience
268
a feeling that what shames the child shames the family, and what brings honour to the family brings honour to the self
family self
269
culture's expectations about what it means to be male or female
gender
270
five differences between men and women
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women enter puberty a year earlier
women live 5 years longer
women express emotions more freely
women can detect fainter odors
women receive offers of help more often
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271
five differences between men and women's health risks
women have twice the risk of depression and anxiety
women have 10 times the risk of eating disorders
men are 4 times more likely to die by suicide or develop an alcohol use disorder
men are more likely to develop autism, color-blindness and ADHD
men are more at risk for antisocial personality disorder
272
any physical or verbal behaviour intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
aggression
273
an act of aggression intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing
relational aggression
274
difference between men and women leading styles
men are more directive (telling people what they want and how to achieve it) and offer opinions while women are more democratic (welcoming others input in decision making) and offer support
275
more common in women, brains that are wired to improve social relationships → tend to befriend
interdependent
276
"men prefer working with things and women prefer working with people"
.
277
two ways biology influences gender
genetically → different sex chromosomes
| physiologically → different concentrations of sex hormones which trigger other anatomical differences
278
the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two and males have one. One from each parent produce a female child
x chromosome
279
the sex chromosome found only in males
y chromosome
280
triggered after 7 weeks by a single gene in the y chromosome, the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males ad females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates growth of male sex organs and development of male sex characteristics during puberty
testosterone
281
a 2 year period of sexual maturation, a flood of hormones when a person becomes capable of reproducing
puberty
282
the body structures (ovaries, testes and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
primary sex characteristics
283
non reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality ad body hair
secondary sex characteristics
284
first ejaculation and puberty landmark for boys
spermarche
285
the first menstrual period and landmark for girls
menarche
286
four stresses that can cause early menarche
father abuse
sexual abuse
insecure attachments
history of mother smoking during pregnancy
287
an inherited condition that involves unusual development of sex chromosomes and anatomy, when a fetus is exposed to unusual levels of sex hormones
disorder of sexual development
288
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position out to behave
role
289
a set of expected behaviours, attitudes and traits for males or for females
gender roles
290
our personal sense of being male, female or a combination of the two
gender identity
291
the theory that we learn social behaviour by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
social learning theory
292
taking on a traditional masculine or feminine role
gender typing
293
displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics
androgyny
294
four biological influences on individual development
shared human genome
individual genetic variations
prenatal environment
sex related genes, hormones, and physiology
295
four psychological influences on individual developent
gene environment interaction
neurological effect of early experiences
responses evoked by our own temperament, gender etc.
beliefs, feelings and expectations
296
social cultural influences on individual development
parental influences
peer influences
cultural individualism and collectivism
cultural gender norms
297
the tendency to believe after learning the outcome that one would have foreseen it → i knew it all along
hindsight bias
298
four steps of scientific method
1. theory
2. hypothesis
3. operational definition
4. replication
299
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and implies predictions that anyone can use to check or to derive practical implications
theory
300
a testable prediction implied by a theory
hypothesis
301
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
intuition
302
think we know more than we do
overconfidence
303
three ways we overestimate our intuition
hindsight bias
overconfidence
perceive patterns
304
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions
critical thinking
305
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
operational definition
306
repeating the essences of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances → confirmation
replication
307
three ways a theory is useful
organizes a range of self reports and observations
implies predictions
stimulates further research that can lead to a revised theory
308
three ways to test hypothesesn and refine theories
descriptive methods
correlational methods
experimental methods
309
describe behaviours, often through case studies, surveys or naturalistic observation
descriptive methods
310
associate different factors
correlational methods
311
manipulate factors to discover effects
experimental methods
312
three types of descriptive methods
case studies
surveys
naturalistic observation
313
in depth analysis of individuals and groups
case studies
314
watching and recording the natural behaviour of many individuals
naturalistic observation
315
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
population
316
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
random sample
317
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
correlation
318
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)
correflation coefficient
319
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)
scatterplot
320
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward the average
regression towards the mean
321
when we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief
illusory correlation
322
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variable) to observe the effect on some behaviour or mental process (dependent variable)
experiement
323
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is to one version of the independent variable
experimental group
324
in the experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
control group
325
assigning participants experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between different groups
random assignment
326
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
double blind procedure
327
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behaviour caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active ingredient
placebo effect
328
in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect
cofounding variable
329
weakness of descriptive method
no control of variables; single cases may be miseading
330
weakness of correlational method
cannot specify cause and effect
331
weakness of experimental method
sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables
332
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
informed consent
333
the postexperimental examination of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
debriefing
334
the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution
mode
335
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
mean
336
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
median
337
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
range
338
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
standard deviation
339
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
normal curves
340
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
statistical significance
341
researchers must ensure the "comfort, health and humane treatment" or animals and minimize "infection, illness, and pain"
American Psychological Association (APA)
342
Code of ethics
informed consent before the experiment
protect them from harm and discomfort
keep information about individual participants confidential
fully debrief people afterward
343
when is observed difference reliable
representative samples are better than biased samples
less variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable
more cases are better than fewer
344
when is observed difference significant
statistical significance
indicates like likelihood that a result will happen by chance but does not say anything about the importance of the result
the observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between the sample
