Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
Motivation:
A
is wanting, a desire for change,
Intrinsic motivation: for the fun of it.
2
Q
Introjection:
A
doing something to please others.
3
Q
Theory:
A
must identify the relations that exist between naturally occurring phenomena, and why these relations exist. Theories allow for predictions (hypothesis) to be made.
Hypothesis: is a prediction about what should happen if the theory is correct.
4
Q
Study of motivation 2 questions:
A
what causes behavior, and why does behavior vary in intensity? The study of motivation concerns those internal processes that give behavior its energy, direction, and persistence.
5
Q
Competence and belongingness:
A
2 psychological needs that arise from requirement for environmental mastery and warm interpersonal relationships.
6
Q
Cognitive:
A
sources of motivation involve the person’s ways of thinking.
7
Q
Emotions:
A
complex, coordinated feeling arousal, purposive, expressive reactions to events in life.
8
Q
Given an event, emotions envelope 4 aspects of experience;
A
- Feelings: subjective
- Arousal: bodily mobilization to cope with demands
- Purpose: motivation urge to accomplish something.
- Expression: Nonverbal communication of our emotions to others.
9
Q
3 things generate motivation:
A
needs, cognitions, and emotions.
10
Q
Influence:
A
social process in which one requests that the other change behavior.
11
Q
Motivation:
A
internal, endows the person with energy and direction to cope with environment. Thus the area of study is not about manipulation, but rather about understanding the conditions that energize and direct.
12
Q
*5 ways to measure motivation:
A
behavior, engagement, psychophysiology, brain activations, self-report.
13
Q
*7 aspects of behavior:
A
effort, persistence, latency, choice, probability of response, facial expressions, body gestures.
14
Q
Agentic engagement:
A
asking questions….
15
Q
engagement
A
Cognitive engagement: deep processing, learning…
Behavioural engagement: effort…
16
Q
Psychophysiology:
A
how psychological states produce phsilogical changes.
17
Q
10 themes
A
10 themes :
- Benefit adaptation and functioning.
- Direct attention
- Intervening variables
- Motives vary over time
- Types of motivation exist
- We are not always conscious of the motivation of our behavior.
- What people want
- Motivation needs supportive conditions
- In motivation, what is easy to do is rarely what works
- A good theory is important.
18
Q
motives
A
Motives: prepare for action by directing attention to select some behaviors and courses of action over others.
19
Q
history
A
Aristotle: nutritive, sensitive(regulate hedonic pleasure and pain, rational.
Descartes: passive active motivation, body was passive, will was active.
20
Q
Circular explanation:
A
explain an observation in terms of itself.
21
Q
Freud:
A
drive theory; source, impetus, object, aim…..bodily deficit, this emerges into consciousness, seek bodily deficit to reduce anxiety, satisfaction if deficit is reduced.
22
Q
Hull:
A
drive was a pooled energy source composed of all current bodily deficits. **high and low motivation could be predicted before it occurred. (Excitatory potential = Habit x Drive x Kincetive) Thus internal drive and environmental reward play a role.
23
Q
habit v. drive
A
Habit: directs behavior, drive energizes behavior.
24
Q
3 assumptions of drive theory:
A
bodily needs, energized behavior, drive reduction was reinforcing and produced learning.
25
6 features of arousal theory: these are depicted in the inverted U-curve.
1. Arousal represents a variety of processes that govern alertness
2. How stimulating environment is
3. Moderate level of arousal coincides with the experience of pleasure.
4. Strategic behavior to increase or decrease level of arousal
5. When under aroused people seek to increase arousal
6. When over aroused, people seek to decrease arousal.
26
Why were grand theories left behind?
Active nature of human, cognitive revolution, socially relevant questions.
27
Kuhn:
progress continuous and discontinuous.
28
Subcortical brain:
Urges and emotions occur regardless of whether you want them to. Unconscious, automatic, and impulsive. The subcortical brain generates motivational and emotional states and the cortical brain modifies motivational states so that these two structures work together.
29
Bidirectional communication:
smiling person of dangerous group. The subcortical brain will generate approach motivation, while the cortical brain will generate the opposite.
30
9 structures subcortical:
amygdala, ventral striatum, nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, hypothalamus, caudate nucleus, putamen, substantia nigra, globus pallidus.
31
6 structure cortical brain:
insular cortex, prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex. Ventromedial prefrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex.
32
Reticular formation :
arousal, alertness, brain stem, ascending reticular activating system, and descending reticular formation.
33
Basil ganglia:
motivational modulation of movement and action.
34
Nucleus accumbens:
reward center, dopamine release.
35
Insular cortex:
bodily states, empathy, uncertainty
36
Orbitofrontal cortex:
value of environmental objects, preferences, choice,
37
Ventromedial prefrontal:
emotional control, unlearned emotional value of basic sensory rewards.
38
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex:
learned emotional value of environmental events, control of urges, risks during the pursuit of long term goals.
39
Anterior cingulate cortex:
motivational conflicts,
40
*Amygdala:
sends projections to almost every part of the brain, although only a small number of projections return information to the amygdala. This explains why emotion, especially negative emotion return information to the amygdala. This demonstrates why negative emotion overpowers cognition more than cognition tends to regulate emotion.
41
Hedonic evaluation of stimuli:
activation of ventral striatum is synonymous with the experience of reward.
42
Ventral tegmental area:
manufacturing site for dopamine.
43
dopamine
Dopamine release is greatest for unpredicted events.
44
Wanting without liking occurs:
when the nucleus accumbens becomes hypersensitive to dopamine stimulation.
45
Hypothalamus:
regulates both the endocrine and autonomic nervous system.
46
Insular cortex:
anterior (subjective feelings of bodily states.) and posterior (bodily states, heart rate, fatigue,)
the anterior insula monitors and becomes aware of “gut” (bodily based) feelings.
47
anterior insular cortex.
When people have “a feeling about that thing” (e.g., this person is untrustworthy, my homework is boring, class is enjoyable),
48
anterior insular cortex.
What this means is that when a person engages in a task “for fun” or “because it is interesting,” the task creates anterior insular stimulation that generates a sense of satisfaction.
49
anterior insular cortex.
The anterior insula is the key brain structure involved in empathy, which is the ability to perceive and share another person’s emotional state
50
prefrontal cortex in emotion:
Left activations signal positive emotion and approach motivation; right activations signal negative emotion and avoidance emotion
51
The orbitofrontal cortex
has a direct connection with the subcortical brain’s reward center (the orbitofrontal-striatal circuit) that allows it to receive reward-related information from the striatum
52
allostatic load
chronic cortical reactivity takes a cumulative toll on the body.
53
Latency and motivation:
procrastination the biggest issue is starting a task. A short latency period would equal high motivation.
54
Descriptive design
To describe a phenomenon, not manipulating variables E.g., How many students are focused in class?
Benefit Great for initial stages of research in an understudied area
Drawback Doesn’t specify the relation between variables We might know that some students focus in class, but not WHY or WHEN this happens
55
Correlation design
Correlation is a statistical procedure that allows researchers to see the relation between two concept.
Designed to identify “what goes with what”in nature, and not designed to identify causal relationships Motivation and GPA
Major advantage is that it allows us to identify relationships among variables as they occur naturally
56
Experimental design
To assess cause, researchers mustmanipulate one variable (IV) and see if the manipulation of the variable affects another variable as a result (DV). Random assignmen
57
Experimental must have...
Must have… Manipulation of variables (random assignment) Ensuring that participants in each experimental condition are equivalent to each other Measurement of dependent variable Control of extraneous variables
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Quasi experimental
Quasi experimental design is used when grouping cannot be assigned. This design is not causal like experimental as the groups are not manipulated
59
Operant conditioning: S : R→C
(S:R) explains the motivational significance of incentives.
| The second half of the equation (R → C) explains the motivational significance of consequences.
60
why reinforcers increase behavior:
1. It decreases drive
2. It decreases arousal
3. It increases arousal
4. It is attractive to the person
5. It feels good
6. It makes it possible to do something fun
61
positive reinforcers
The distinction is that all positive reinforcers are rewards, while only some rewards function as positive reinforcers (because not all rewards increase behavior).
62
hidden cost of reward
The reward’s adverse effect on intrinsic motivation
63
Cognitive evaluation theory
asserts that all external events have both a controlling aspect and a competence-informing aspect.
The theory presumes need for autonomy and competence.
Understanding how any external event affects another person’s motivation is the domain of cognitive evaluation theory.
64
4 types extrinsic motivation
1. External regulation is the prototype of non-self-determined extrinsic motivation. obtain a reward, avoid a punisher, or satisfy some external demand.
2. Introjected regulation involves taking in, but not truly accepting . Incomplete taking in of an outside belief or regulation.
3. Identified regulation represents mostly internalized and autonomous (or self-determined) extrinsic motivation. Voluntarily accepts the merits and utility of a belief or behavior
4. Integrated regulation constitutes the most autonomously endorsed type of extrinsic motivation.
65
Internalization
Internalization is more than socialization. This is because internalization is an active, intentional, person-initiated process.
66
Rationale
People who hear a convincing and personally satisfying rationale for why it is important to engage in an uninteresting activity generally put forth greater effort and engagement during that activity than do people who do not hear such an explanatory rationale
67
Amotivation
amotivation lack of competence, a lack of autonomy, or a lack of relatedness
68
Cognitive evaluation theory
predict in advance the motivational effects of any extrinsic event. The theory explains how an extrinsic event. affects intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, as mediated by the event’s effect on the psychological needs for competence and autonomy. When an extrinsic event is presented in a relatively controlling way (i.e., given to gain compliance), it increases extrinsic motivation but decreases intrinsic motivation because of its detrimental effects on autonomy.
69
autonomy
are volitional action and wholehearted self-endorsement (i.e., ownership) of that action.
70
Autonomy support
1. perspective, adopt their frame of reference, be nonjudgmental.
2. involves finding ways to involve (awaken) and satisfy (nurture) the other’s psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The classroom teacher, for instance, might begin a lesson by asking students what they would most want to focus on during the lesson (e.g., “What would you like to do?”
3. rationale is a verbal explanation as to why putting forth effort during the activity might be a personally useful thing to do
71
autonomy-supportive individuals
say “okay” collaboratively with the other person to solve the underlying cause of the negative affect and resistance,
72
Responsiveness:
* Understanding
* Validation— communicates liking and acceptance.
* Caring— the partner sends a message of confidence that he or she will provide help when it is needed. concern for one’s well-being.
73
why you came to exercise, how challenging the workout was and how much you improved, and what the quality of the social interaction was during the hour.
Notice that these questions correspond to the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
74
Vitality
is the energy that is available to the self
75
Neuropeptide Y:
prompts your body to eat when energy reserves are low.
76
Melatonin:
sleep, the worm in the ocean is evidence why…
77
Study:
Exchange couple, they would use different colors for the puzzle to keep track of who did what. Communal couples used the same couple cause they weren’t keeping track.
78
Overjustification effect:
If you’re high on intrinsic motivation, then you start getting a reward for it, then it is extrinsic motivation. It is a loss of intrinsic motivation.
79
Video:
Tasks for rudimentary cognitive skill, reward led to lower performance. For simple tasks, incentives work really well. When the task is more complicated then the incentives stop working. (Autonomy, mastery (get better), purpose: lead to better performance.) For engagement, self-direction is better. The point is that intrinsic drive is critical.
80
Deficiency needs
typically generate tension-packed, urgency-laden emotions, such as anxiety, frustration, pain, and relief.
81
Growth needs
typically generate positive emotions, such as interest, enjoyment, hope, and vitality
82
Drive theory:
physiological deprivations and deficits (e.g., lack of water, food, and sleep) create biological needs. If the need continues unsatisfied, the biological deprivation becomes potent enough to occupy attention and generate psychological drive.
83
seven core regulatory processes:
need, drive, homeostasis, negative feedback, multiple inputs/multiple outputs, intraorganismic mechanisms, and extraorganismic mechanisms.
84
Intraorganismic mechanisms
include all the biological regulatory systems. Brain structures, the endocrine system, and bodily organs
85
Extraorganismic mechanisms:
include all the environmental influences cognitive, environmental, social, and cultural influences. For hunger, extraorganismic influences include beliefs about calories
86
understanding of hunger and eating requires all three
(1) short-term appetite homeostatic-based models, (2) long-term genetic and metabolism energy balance models, and (3) cognitive–social–environmental regulatory models
87
The glucostatic hypothesis
onset and termination of hunger and eating. The glucostatic (gluco = blood glucose, static = equilibrium or homeostasis) hypothesis argues that blood-sugar levels are critical to hunger—when blood glucose drops, people feel hungry and want to eat
88
lipostatic (lipo = fatty; static = equilibrium or homeostasis) hypothesis,
when the mass of fat stored drops below its homeostatic balance, adipose tissue secretes hormones (e.g., ghrelin) into the bloodstream to promote hunger
89
Set-point theory
has a biologically determined body weight or “fat thermostat” that is set by genetics. In set-point theory, hunger activation and satiety depend on the size (not the number) of one’s fat cells, which vary over time.
90
Restraint-release:
One study, for example, found that people on a diet ate less ice cream than people not dieting, as you would expect, but dieters actually ate more than nondieters when everyone first drank a 15-ounce milkshake. After the dieters drank the high-calorie food, they became increasingly vulnerable to binging. For dieters, there is truth in the advertising slogan, “You can’t eat just one.”
91
sex
In humans, sexual behavior is influenced, but not determined, by hormones.
92
Three categories explain which faces are judged as most attractive:
neonatal features, sexual maturity features, and expressive features
93
Sexual schemas
are beliefs about the sexual self that are derived from past experiences that feature both positive-approach-oriented thoughts and behaviors as well as negative-avoidance-oriented thoughts and behaviors. important because sexual arousal is always a product of competing excitatory (desire) and inhibitory (anxiety) tendencies
94
Good day
A good day: Simply put, we feel that we have a good day when the events in our lives work to involve and satisfy our psychological needs, and we feel that we have a bad day when the events in our lives work to neglect and frustrate these needs.
95
cognitive evaluation theory
it is the controlling aspect of an external event that affects the person’s need for autonomy, whereas it is the informational aspect that affects the person’s need for competence. The theory applies to the offering of incentives and rewards, but it also applies further to the offering of any and all external events.
96
cognitive evaluation theory 3 prop
Proposition 1, external events promote an internal perceived locus of causality promote autonomy and intrinsic motivation. External events (e.g., offer a reward) that promote an external PLOC decrease autonomy and instead promote extrinsic motivation.
Is the purpose of the extrinsic event to control another person’s behavior? If not, autonomy and intrinsic motivation will be preserved;
Proposition 2, external events that increase perceived competence (e.g., offer praise) promote intrinsic motivation, whereas events that decrease perceived competence (e.g., offer criticism) undermine it.
Asks, Is the purpose of the extrinsic event to inform another person’s sense of competence? If so, perceived competence and intrinsic motivation will rise and fall to the extent that the external event communicates
External events affect not only a person’s behavior but, in addition, a person’s psychological needs.
Proposition 3 Relatively controlling events undermine intrinsic motivation and promote extrinsic motivation. Why am I giving another person this external event—to control behavior or to inform competence?
97
implicit needs
A developmentally acquired (socialized) psychological process to seek out and spend time interacting with those environmental events associated with positive emotion during one’s socialization history.
Implicit needs arise from our unique personal experiences and therefore vary considerably from person to person.
98
growth and deficiency
Deficiency needs typically generate tension-packed, urgency-laden emotions, such as anxiety, frustration, pain, and relief. Growth needs typically generate positive emotions, such as interest, enjoyment, hope, and vitality
99
Hull: drive theory
Drive energizes the animal into action and directs that energized activity toward those particular behaviors that are capable of servicing (satisfying) the biological deficit that created the drive in the first place.
