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Biology 2EE3 > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

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1
Q

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

A

observed microscopic life in pond water through a microscope for the first time.

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2
Q

what did Leeuwenhoek call microbes?

A

animalecules

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3
Q

spontaneous generation

A

life spawns out of nothing. maggots appearing in meat.

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4
Q

Louis Pasteur

A

disproved spontaneous generation. father of pasteurization and fermentation and vaccines

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5
Q

swan neck flask experiment

A

boil broth to sterilize, cool broth. broth remains sterile. therefore life is not spontaneously generated

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6
Q

germ theory of disease

A

pasteur, koch: many diseases are cause by micro-organisms and can be transmitted from person to person

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7
Q

how did Pasteur discover vaccines

A

attenuated microbes. infected chickens, left on vacation and came back and continued infecting chickens. this time it didn’t work because while he was gone his bacteria had become attenuated. made a new batch but it still didn’t work because the attenuated bacteria were effectively vaccinations

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8
Q

Robert koch

A

showed that bacillus anthraces was the cause of anthrax. developed a series of postulates for determining if a microbe is responsible for a disease

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9
Q

Koch’s Postulates. Detailed

A
  1. microbe must be found in suffering organism and not in healthy organisms
  2. microbe must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in a use culture
  3. cultured microbes should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism.
  4. microbes must be reisolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original host
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10
Q

Summarized Koch’s Postulates

A
  1. Found in diseased organism
  2. isolated from organism and cultured
  3. introduced into healthy organism
  4. preisolated from inoculated experimental host
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11
Q

Joseph Lister

A

decided that surgical equipment should be sterilized. Used phenol.

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12
Q

Alexander fleming

A

discovered penicillin by accident. accidentally contaminated plate had a clear ring around the mold with no bacteria mold must be killing the bacteria

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13
Q

microbiologies effect on infectious diseases

A

caused a rapid decrease in infectious diseases along with general sanitation and improved hygiene

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14
Q

who saw microscopic life for the first time and when?

A

Anton van leeuwenhoek in 1600s

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15
Q

who disproved spontaneous generation and how

A

Louis Pasteur with his swan necked flask experiment

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16
Q

who developed the germ theory of disease?

A

Pasteur, Koch and others

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17
Q

What are Koch’s postulates used for?

A

to identify the causative microbial agents of several diseases

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18
Q

Why does typhoid fever not follow koch’s postulates?

A

it violates number 3. it doesn’t cause the same disease when a pure culture is inoculated into a host

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19
Q

central dogma theory of biology

A

information flow in cells: DNA–transcription–RNA–translation–polypeptides

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20
Q

transcription

A

specific dan segments transcribed into RNA by RNA polymerase

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21
Q

translation

A

ribosomes decode mRNA and synthesize proteins using amino acids delivered by tRNA

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22
Q

ribosomes composition

A

rRNA and proteins

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23
Q

Polymerase Chain Reaction

A

a method for amplifying copies of specific DNA segments using principles of DNA replication

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24
Q

DNA polymerase

A

the core enzyme for replication. extends a growing strand on each side as the DNA is synthesized

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25
key components of PCR
1. template DNA 2. Primers 3. Thermostable DNA polymerase
26
Template DNA (PCR)
sample of DNA containing the region to be amplified.
27
Primers (PCR)
short oligonucleotides that bind to opposite strands of template DNA flanking the region of interest. Starting point for DNA polymerase
28
Thermostable DNA polymerase (PCR)
enzyme from bacterial DNA replication, extends primers to synthesize a new complementary strand of DNA to template. Isolated from thermophilic organisms
29
PCR cycle
1. DNA heated to denature it forming single strands 2. DNA cools and primers anneal to the complementary regions 3. DNA polymerase extends DNA from primers REPEAT CYCLE
30
thermocycler
a tool which allows the PCR process to repeat quickly by separating the DNA into single strands over and over again
31
DNA sequencing
determining the order of nucleotides in a specific piece of DNA
32
Recombinant DNA technology
combining two or more DNA molecules from different sources to generate new genetic material
33
Frederick Sanger
pioneer of DNA sequencing
34
Phylogenetics
using DNA sequencing to compare similarities of different species genomes
35
process of DNA sequencing
1. extract total dan from environmental sample 2. amplify genes using PCR 3. Separate the amplified DNA molecules 4. analyze DNA sequences to determine species in sample
36
Carl Woese
discovered Archaea domain using SSU rRNA sequencing
37
why is 2003 important
human genome project was finished
38
horizontal gene transfer
bacteria can steal DNA from their environment and incorporate it into their own genomes
39
applications of human genome sequencing
personalized medicine to identify rare genetic diseases evolutionary biologists to track migration and evolution
40
concerns about personalized DNA sequencing
how info is used. reveal info about family members. hear bad news
41
metagenomics
sequencing many genomes, not just one. useful in revealing info about the role of the microbiome in human health
42
recombinant DNA technology storage
store or replicate DNA using bacteria as a live genetic databank. put DNA into bacteria. can also be used to produce proteins for industry
43
common use of recombinant protein production
insulin production
44
recombinant protein production
use recombinant DNA technology to get bacteria to produce desired proteins
45
common uses of Recombinant DNA technology
Bt plants antibiotics biofuels
46
synthetic biology
applying engineering principles to biology to design biological systems that do not exist in the natural world. writing DNA almost like computer code
47
first synthetic genome
synthesized in 2008. mycoplasma genitalium genome
48
synthetic biology potential in crops
boost crop growth using synthetic biology to improve photosynthetic efficiency
49
discovery of a prokaryotic immune system led to what discovery
CRISPER
50
CRISPER
Discovered from microbiology and studying microbes. repurposed crisper from prokaryote immune system to use it to cut DNA from a target location in genetic editing
51
genetic editing
CRISPER cuts DNA at target locations. the repair process can modify, destroy, or add function to the gene
52
CASP protein
ability to cut DNA open and can be targeted towards a specific piece of DNA using a guide RNA. CASP repairs DNA by inserting a new piece of DNA
53
Application of CRISPER
knocking out genes for research making crops more nutritious correcting genetic diseases designer babies
54
how does information flow in cells
according to the central dogma theory of biology it flows from DNA tor RNA to protein
55
Generally, what does PCR do?
it generates many copies of a target segment of DNA
56
how has recombinant DNA technology contributed to industry?
via recombinant protein production
57
what revolutionized gene engineering?
CRISPER gene editing
58
LUCA
similarities to us an bacteria, 355 genes in total, last universal common ancestor
59
Miller and Urey
experiment simulated spark that started forming organic molecules from the primordial soup. origin of life
60
Origin of Life Experiment
boiled water in flask. water vapour condensed into clouds. primordial atmosphere present. sparked the atmosphere to simulate lightning. identified compounds like amino acids which are essential for life proving that in these conditions simple simple compounds can make organic compounds
61
what molecule likely kicked off life?
RNA, because it can act and replicate due to its single strand structure unlike DNA which is more stable but is unable to do much on its own
62
Ribosome
carries out translation to make proteins
63
micelles in primordial soup
phospholipids formed miscelles around RNA in primordial soup making a membrane around it
64
Origin of Life process
1. Primordial soup yields synthesis of proteins and RNA 2. RNA self replicates 3. Membrane forms around RNA 4. early cellular life uses RNA for catalyst and coding 5. protein synthesis using RNA begins and proteins assume functions 6. development of DNA from RNA 7. DNA replaces RNA as the coding molecule leading to the DNA RNA Protein pathway
65
why did DNA replace RNA as the coding structure?
DNAs double helix makes it more stable form of info storage
66
what has dominated the biosphere for most of earths history?
microbial life
67
first microbial life
stromatolites. found in fossil record
68
first organisms
prokaryotes
69
prokaryotes
no true nucleus nuclei instead where the DNA is organized no membrane bound organelles
70
why was photosynthesis a game changer
it allowed the synthesis of organic molecules without depending on random events such as lightning strikes
71
autotrophs
evolved due to photosynthesis. produced oxygen as a by product. produce organic molecules using suns energy.
72
change in early earths atmosphere
due to photosynthesis. caused one of the greatest extrinctions because anaerobic life was poisoned.
73
aerobic respiration
prokaryotes surviving the oxygenation event evolved aerobic respiration. evolved due to higher oxygen in atmosphere.
74
cellular respiration
a balancing process for photosynthesis reversing it. breaks organic molecules down back into water and carbon dioxide
75
do all heterotrophs perform aerobic respiration?
no. it is just more efficient. oxidation of pyruvate produces far more ATP than glycolysis which only produces 2 ATP
76
endosymbiotic theory
primitive prokaryotic microbes ingested other microbes starting a symbiotic relationship forming the first basic eukaryotes.
77
mitochondria
prokaryote ingested a microbe that used oxygen for respiration to produce chemical energy resulting in the mitochondria
78
chloroplasts
prokaryote ingested microbes that performed photosynthesis to fix CO2 into organic molecules resulting in the chloroplast
79
eukaryotes
compartmentalized cellular organelles, true nucleus, took several million years to evolve.
80
simply put how did life begin
from primordial soup as self replicating RNA molecules
81
when were microbes present first
3 billion years ago
82
what did oxygenation of the atmosphere drive
the evolution of aerobic respiration allowing microbes to acquire more energy from organic carbon
83
what did endosymbiosis lead to
the first eukaryotes
84
cells
All life is composed of cells - cells are the smallest unit of life
85
Metabolism
Metabolism: controlled chemical reactions that extract environmental energy and nutrients and transforming them into biological materials
86
growth
increase in mass of biological material
87
reproduction
production of new copies of an organism
88
key processes to support life
○ Genetic variation allowing for evolution ○ Response: to external stimuli and adaptation to local environment - response: dog coming inside in the cold, adaptation: grow longer hair in winter ○ Homeostasis: active maintenance of consistent internal environment - dogs body temperature remains relatively the same always
89
how does the cell membrane permit homeostasis?
by controlling flow of molecules into and out of the cell
90
enzymes
atalyze biochemical reactions and do the work of maintaining homeostasis, responding to the environment and metabolism leading to growth
91
Life's toolbox:
macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, polysaccharides Proteins
92
Proteins
• Polypeptides, 20 amino acids • Composed of amino acid subunits ○ Catalyze the vas majority of chemical reactions in the cell ○ Structural components of cells • Proteins make up 50-55% of dry weight of the cell
93
nucleic acids
• Composed of ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotide subunits ○ Information from dna provides instruction for th assembly and reproduction of the cell ○ Rna performs main fxn involved in the cell
94
lipids
* Polar head group - often glycerol. Hydrophilic * Non polar tails - fatty acids for ex. * Fxn as cell membrane in the lipid bilayer * 10% of dry cell weight
95
polysaccharides
* Structural roles such as cellulose in plants * Energy storage such as starch in a potato, animals glycogen * 6-7% of cells dry weight
96
microbes in todays world
• Disease • Digestion • Human health: microbiome: digestion and immune system • Food we eat: some microbes cause food to spoil; food production such as wine, beer, yogurt • Agriculture: diseases reduce crop yields, symbiosis improve crop yields and provide nutrients to crops ○ Root nodules for nitrogen fixing bacteria

Biology 2EE3 (1 decks)

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