Midterm Flashcards
(105 cards)
1
Q
Atl-atl
A
An atl-atl is a spear thrower
first used around 10,000 B.C. and they made hunting easier.
2
Q
Olmecs
A
The Olmecs originated in the Gulf coast lowlands around 1500 B.C-developed the forms of pottery, economic specialization, and religion that influenced the later cultures that developed in the area.
3
Q
Quetzalcoatl
A
Quetzalcoatl is the feathered serpent deity in Classic societies of Mesoamerica. Quetzalcoatl ruled the pantheon of Gods and was almost universal in what is now mexico by 200 B.C.
4
Q
Cholula
A
Holy city that was a sanctuary of Quetzalcoatl-after the fall of Teotihuacan, many refugees fled to Cholula.
5
Q
Ollama
A
Ollama was a traditional ball game. It was not just ball game, it was a sacred ritual with associations with astronomy and human fate.
6
Q
Bonampak
A
Classic Maya site-known for its murals
7
Q
Tezcatlipoca
A
Tezcatlipoca was the supreme deity of the Toltecs who was considered a vengeful god. The followers of Tezcatlipoca exiled the followers of Quetzalcoatl. They told the Toltecs that Quetzalcoatl would return which would be significant when the Spaniards landed.
8
Q
Cenotes
A
Cenotes are the sinkholes created by the collapse of underground caverns. The Yucatec Maya were dependent on them for water.
9
Q
Chac
A
post-classic Mayan rain god
10
Q
Aztlán
A
an island somewhere northwest of the Valley. From this island many Aztec tribes migrated southward. Historians are not sure exactly what took place because the Aztecs destroyed the majority of unfavorable records about themselves.
11
Q
Tenochtitlán
A
the city that the Aztecs built where an eagle with a serpent in its beak perched on a cactus. They built connecting causeways that could be defended easily though they were dependent on the mainland for water.
12
Q
Tlaxcala
A
an independent state founded by a Chichimec tribe during the time of the Aztecs. When the Spaniards landed, Tlaxcala and the Aztecs were fighting which the Spaniards exploited to their obvious benefit.
13
Q
Codex
A
The post classic codices are pictographic “books”. They are very important for historians because they have provided the earliest historical narrative of any society in the area.
14
Q
Pochteca
A
traders of the Aztec society. They lived in their own district with their own courts, dieties, and guild. The goods they brought from as far as Central America sold were very profitable which gave them influence.
15
Q
Metate
A
A metate is a stone mortar used to ground grain and seeds in Mesoamerican culture. Traditionally, woman would use the metate to grind maize.
16
Q
Mixtecs
A
The Mixtec people strongly influenced Aztec culture. While not all, many Mixtec tribes payed tribute to the Aztecs.
17
Q
Quetzal
A
Quetzals is a type of bird that lived in the highlands of Chiapas and Guatemala. The Aztecs highly prized their long, green feathers.
18
Q
Moctezuma II
A
Moctezuma II was the Aztec emperor when the Spanish landed on Mexican soil. His religious convictions most likely hastened the Spanish conquest.
19
Q
Santo Domingo
A
the colony that Christopher Columbus founded in the Caribbean. The lack of gold, silver, and other riches in the Caribbean prompted the Spanish to continue searching. This lead them to what is now known as the Mexican mainland.
20
Q
Diego Velázquez
A
governor of Cuba that sent out an expedition in 1517 to find more Indians to enslave and for trading purposes. The expedition landed on the Yucatán Peninsula where the Spanish first heard of the Aztec Empire and their gold.
21
Q
Totonacs
A
The Totonac Indians of the city of Cempoala greeted Cortes and his men enthusiastically with the suggestion of an alliance against the Aztecs. The help of the Totonacs was significant in the Spanish conquest.
22
Q
Valley of Anáhuac
A
Valley of Anáhuac is the Aztec name for the Valley of Mexico. This is the areas where the Aztec settled.
23
Q
Pánfilo de Narváez
A
The governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, sent Pánfilo de Narváez to stop Hernando Cortes’s expedition. Pánfilo landed in Cempoala while Cortes was in Tenochitlán. When Cortes heard, he doubled back managing to defeat the Narváez expedidition. On his way back he found out that the Aztecs had cornered the rest of his men in Tenochitlán.
24
Q
Cuitláhuac
A
After the death of Moctezuma II during the Spanish conquest, the Aztecs crowned his nephew Cuitláhuac emperor. Unfortunately, one of Narváez’s men was infected with smallpox which killed thousands of Indians. Cuitláhuac contracted the pox and died soon after he became emperor. After Cuitláhuac, the Aztecs only crowned one last ruler.
25
Encomienda System
This system started in the Caribbean. It entailed distributing Indian towns to soldiers as rewards. The Spaniard(encomendero) would receive the tribute and free labor of the Indians of the town in return they were responsible for the Indians' welfare. In reality, the Indians were in a state of serfdom where they were abused in almost every imaginable way.
26
Cristóbal de Olid
Cristóbal de Olid was one of Cortes's closest friends and confidants who broke ranks to take Honduras in his and Velazques's name. This caused Cortes to head to Honduras by land to defeat Olid. In Cortes's long absence his supporters were usurped by corrupt treasury officials and rumors spread to Spain of Cortes hiding Aztec treasures for himself.
Cortes was appointed Governor of New Spain but was ordered back to Spain to answer the charges made against him. He was successful in getting the charges dismissed but was not reappointed Governor
27
Council of the Indies
created by Charles V in 1524 as a broadly organized administration to govern Spain's New World colonies. It was composed of high ranking Spaniards who acted in behalf of the king and acted in his name. The Council had judicial, executive, and legislative power.
28
Land of Quivira
After the Spanish initial conquest, rumors spread of other cities full of treasures in the New World. One of these was the Land of Quivira. Indians learned the best way to get rid of the Spanish was to tell them that cities of massive wealth were farther on. The Spanish expedition made it to Kansas before they turned around and headed back to Mexico. The cruelties the Spanish displayed to the Indians on their way roused the Indians to revolt resulting in the Mixton War in 1540-1. This war was the most serious revolt before the Independence struggle.
29
New Laws of 1542–43
Bartolome de Las Casas was a Dominican friar who was a tireless lobbyist for indigenous peoples rights. He convinced the crown to introduce legislation that freed natives from slavery and easing labor requirements. These laws met much resistance because they stripped the power from encomenderos in the encomienda system. In 1545, the crown removed the parts of the laws that offended the encomenderos.
30
Gonzalo de Sandoval
Gonzalo de Sandoval was a conquistador under Hernando Cortes. Without his thinking, Cortes would not have been able to defeat the Narvaez expedition. Also, he was in charge of the lead columns during the Noche Triste. Sandoval escorted the launches that led to the fall of Tenochitlan.
31
Reconquista
The conquistadors in the New World were influenced by the recent Reconquista of Spain from the Moors. This legacy led to the religious justification for military conquest and the role the Roman Catholic Church had in advancing the goals of the Spanish crown.
32
Jerónimo de Aguilar
Jerónimo de Aguilar was a survivor of a shipwreck in 1511 which led his to be living on the Yucatan when Cortes was beginning his expedition to the Yucatan. When Cortes found him, he was very happy to be among other Spaniards again and his knowledge of the local language and customs was incredibly helpful during the Spanish conquest.
33
Cholula massacre
Cortes attacked the Cholula because either his Tlaxcalan allies or DOna MAria warned him of an apparent attack by the Cholulan people. Cortes decided to preempt this supposed attack and in the 5 hour battle around 6 thousand Cholulan warriors were killed. Afterward the ancient holy city was burned and sacked by Cortes's Indian allies. This tragedy made Moctezuma despair of defeating the SPanish and modern-day Mexicans consider this a planned slaughter without provocation of their ancestors.
34
Noche Triste
The Noche Triste seemed as a reversal of fate for the Spaniards. The Aztecs managed to sneak attack the Spanish when they were leaving Tenochitlan after looting their treasures. Around 450 of Cortes's men and 4 thousand of their Indian allies died. Earlier in the night Moctezuma II was injured in an unknown way and died 3 days later.
35
Cuauhtémoc
Cuauhtémoc was the last ruler of the Aztecs. He led the Aztecs in a brave but failed fight to stop the fall of Tenochitlan to the Spaniards and their Indian allies. Cortes took him hostage on August 13, 1521, the day of the fall of Tenochitlan. He was taken as a hostage on the way to Honduras by Cortes. He was executed on the way along with other Indian lords for trying to start a rebellion of the Indians on the expedition.
36
Pedro de Alvarado
He was a conquistador who accompanied Cortes to Mexico commanding on of the ships of Cortes's fleet. When Cortes went to deal with Pánfilo de Narváez he left Alvarado in charge of Spanish forces in Tenochitlan. While Cortes was gone the Aztecs turned on the Spanish forces which led to the events of La Noche Triste.
37
"Obedezco pero no cumplo."
"Obedezco pero no cumplo" translates from Spanish to "I obey but do not execute" in English. Whenever an order from the crown seemed harmful to a particular situation a viceroy in the New World would note this in his report to the crown.
38
Luis de Velasco
the second viceroy of New Spain. He served from 1550 to his death in 1564. He continued the good work of Antonio de Mendoza. Velasco abolished Indian slavery and implemented other protections for the indigenous population.
39
Cabildo
A cabildo was a town's municipal council in the New World. The number of members in a cabildo varied from 4 to 15 depending on the size of the town/city called regidores. A cabildo also usually had two senior officials called alcaldes ordinarios. These senior officials had some judicial powers unlike regidores. A cabildo generally represented the local elites of a town because positions on the cabildo were usually awarded to the highest bidder.
40
Chichimecs
The Chichimecs inhabited Northern Mexico, or what the Spaniards considered the Northern frontier of New Spain. In the 1540s, silver ore was found in the Zacatecas region of the northern frontiers. Till the end of the sixteenth century, Chichimec warriors made supplying and staying in mining camps in the region very dangerous. In the 1590's, the current viceroy managed to make a deal with the warriors. In exchange for an annual supply of clothing and cattle, the Chichimecs left the Spanish to mine in peace.
41
Juan de Oñate
He organized the province of New Mexico -In 1598 the viceroy of New Spain sent Juan de Oñate north on an expedition that followed Vásquez de Coronado expediton earlier that century. An outpost was set up in the far north and Franciscan friars began converting Indians in the surrounding areas of San Juan, Taos, etc.
42
Francis Drake
Francis Drake was an English pirate with the backing of his government. After his cousin was captured by the Spanish, Drake was a constant thorn in the Spanish's back. He raided both the Caribbean and the Pacific with much success.
43
Bartolomé de Las Casas
Bartolomé de Las Casas was a Dominican friar who convinced the crown to introduce the New Laws of 1542-3 that protected the indigenous people of the New World from many of the abuses they had been suffering. While these laws were rescinded in 1545, they were reissued a few years later. He also lobbied for the abolition of slavery till achieved in 1550s
44
Zacatecas
Zacatecas had become the 3rd largest city in New Spain by the early seventeenth century; Mexico City and Puebla being the only two larger. The mining industry made the city wealthy between the actual mining and entrepreneurs supplying the people looking for silver.
45
Cochineal
Cochineal is a red dye extracted from from tiny insects found in the nopal taxes. At the time, good dyes had great value because of the booming textile industry in Europe. Cochineal was one of the export crops that was an important part of the Spanish crown's income.
46
Casa de Contratación
La Casa de Contratación was the agency or house of trade based in Sevilla which supervised commerce. All goods from the Indies went through la Casa de Contratación which kept tight controls on all commerce to benefit the merchants in Spain.
47
Manila Galleon
In New Spain, once a year the Manila Galleon arrived at Acapulco filled with the prized luxuries of the Orient. This trade made the Mexico City silver merchants a lot of money because they served as brokers for the exchange of Peruvian silver and Asian goods
48
Alcabala
The crown had around sixty different taxes that the colonists of New Spain had to pay. The Alcabala was the most despised as it was a sales tax an basically anything sold. It started at 2 percent of an item's value but ballooned to 14 percent during the various wars Spain fought in the eighteenth century.
49
Juan de Zumárraga
Juan de Zumárraga arrived in New Spain in 1528 as a bishop and the title "Protector of the Indians" bestowed on him by the crown. He established the early form of the secular church in the colony and was named archbishop of Mexico before his death in 1548.
50
Pedro de Gante
Two years after Cortes asked for missionaries be sent to New Spain, three lay brothers arrived. One of these brothers was Pedro de Gante. Established schools for Indian children
51
Eusebio Francisco Kino
Eusebio Francisco Kino was one of the later Jesuit missionaries to arrive in New Spain. He went north and began converting natives in Senora, Arizona, and Baja California-advocated settlement of upper Cali but did not live to see it happen
52
Juan de Palafox
Juan de Palafox was the bishop of Puebla and held other important civil posts, including serving as viceroy for a short time. In the 1640s a series of scandals involving the Jesuits and the the bishop caused many important people to get excommunicated and a Jesuit school was almost burned to the ground. The Jesuits came out on top in this scandal but in the end the secular arm of the church gained the upper hand.
53
Inquisition
In 1571, the Holy Office of the Inquisition arrived in the colony. The majority of cases in the colony involved the non-Indian population. Thousands of cases involved the misappropriation of supernatural power and sexual transgressions. The officials of the Inquisition made the decision not to try the Indian population of heresy because of the time it would take to convert the whole population.
54
Auto da Fé
Auto da Fé was the public penance that took place when the Spanish Inquisition convicted someone of heresy. Few were burned at the stake-usually flogged or branded
55
machismo
Machismo describes the way a man was supposed to behave in the Spanish culture during colonial times. Machismo describes male virility and authority. This included exercising control over the majority of women's lives.
56
Castas
Castas was the collective name for all people of color in New Spain. Within the castas, there were dozens upon dozens of other racial designations. In the beginning of the colony all people in the castas were subordinated by the "elite" white classes but as time went on money could buy status.
57
Peninsulares
The colonial period of New Spain was dominated by the men sent by the Crown from the Spanish peninsula. They were also known as the gachupines. They held the great majority of the highest posts in civil and ecclesiastical hierarchies-in the 18th Century there was heavy emigration of Spaniards to New Spain most of them became wealthy merchants
58
Don Martín Cortés
a notable case of a mestizo who gained high rank. His father legitimized him and took him to Spain with him when he was five. He was knighted while still a child and was even a page to Philip II when he was still a prince.
59
Corregidor
also known as alcaldes mayores, they basically fleeced the Indian population through coercion and manipulation. They collected tribute through Indian middlemen, extracted bribes, and forced Indian communities to buy unwanted merchandise.
60
Patrones
Patrones translates to bosses in english. In some cases patrones could provide villagers with protection like through the feudal system.
61
Yanga
Yanga was an ex slave that hid out in the mountains near Veracruz. The Spanish forces couldn't defeat them so the came to a treaty and created their own town.
62
Pedro de Gante
Pedro de Gante was a Franciscan missionary who started the first school in New Spain--educate Indian children. He also learned Nahuatl to communicate with the indigenous population.
63
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz was a nun in New Spain. She is considered the first Mexican writer. She basically educated herself, and when she was 17 the Viceroy gathered a panel of scholars to test her. SHe was so impressive that word of her knowledge and writing spread to mainland Spain-best known for her lyrical poetry
64
José Joaquin Fernandez de Lizardi
José Joaquin Fernandez de Lizardi wrote a satire in called El Periquillo Sarniento in 1816. It is considered the first true novel written in Spanish to come of Latin America. It was a satirical depiction of life in early nineteenth-century Mexico.
65
Manuel Zumaya
While much of the organized music in New Spain was performed through the Church, music was an important to all strata of the colonial population. Most music was not of a higher cultural taste, but in 1711 Manuel Zumaya wrote the first opera of the New World, La Partenope.
66
Puebla cathedral
The cathedral of Puebla at time of construction was considered one of the finest cathedrals in New Spain. It was laid out in 1575 and completed in 1649. Its dome provided a lot of light to accent the interior ornamentation. This pattern was copied throughout the colony. It is an important example of Mexican baroque.
67
Pícaros
Pícaros was the name of the wandering homeless in New Spain. While they were portrayed as charming, living by their wits in literature, the authorities considered them as a disruptive element and potentially dangerous.
68
Cristóbal de Villalpando
Cristóbal de Villalpando was a Baroque Mexican painter. He painted the parts of the interiors of both the Puebla and Mexico City Cathedrals. His style was vastly emulated.
69
Mascaradas
Mascaradas were the grandest events in New Spain. They were usually planned far in advance and were either sponsored by wealthy patrons or the state. They were held in celebration for grand events. The most important part of the show was the grand parade. The goal of each mascarada was to top the graduer of the last.
70
Matlazáhuatl
In New Spain the most virulent disease was called Matlazáhuatl. Historians believe it was either a typhus or plague. All ethnic groups in the colony fell to this disease.
71
Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora
Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora was an eminent scholar of a wide range of interests in the seventeenth century. He exemplifies scientific curiosity in the colonial period. His interests ranged from mathematics to history-wrote first history of Mexico
72
Charles II
Charles II was the last of the spanish Hapsburgs. He inherited the throne 1665 at the age of 4. He was called El Hechizado, the bewitched, because of his mental and physical deformities. He was on the edge of death for years, prolonging the jousting for his throne. Near his death he named Philip of Anjou his successor. This began the rule of the Spanish Bourbon in 1701. This led to the Austrians declaring war--the War of Spanish Succession which lasted a dozen years. The Bourbons won this war.
73
Charles III
Charles III ruled from 1759 to 1788. He was a follower of the Enlightenment and introduced reforms in Spain and moved to restructure the colonies. He opened more ports and allowed New Spain to trade with other Spanish colonies. The crown under his rule also lowered some taxes, revised some custom duties, and organized a miner's guild.
74
Valenciana
Valenciana was the deepest mine in the world in the eighteenth century, reaching two thousand feet into the ground. At times in the late eighteenth century, its' net profit was over one million pesos.
75
José de Gálvez
José de Gálvez arrived in 1765 in New Spain with the powers of visitor general. Charles III sent him there to take a tour of the colony. He spet five years compiling important information that led to many new policy initiatives in New Spain.In 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from New Spain. San Ildefonso was the most prominent Jesuit school in whose graduates included many audiencia judges.
76
San Ildefonso
In 1767, the Jesuits were expelled from New Spain. San Ildefonso was the most prominent Jesuit school in whose graduates included many audiencia judges.
77
Intendants
José de Gálvez, following the French model, proposed that alcaldes mayores and corregidores be replaced by intendants. Charles III named 12 intendents for New Spain in 1786. They replaced the system led by governors, alcaldes mayores, and corregidores.
78
Subdelegados
Subdelegados were the next level of bureaucracy under intendents in Galvez's new system. They were the intendants lieutenants. In 1786, over a hundred subdelgados were named by Charles III.
79
Count Bassoco
Before named count because of a gift to the crown of two hundred thousand pesos. He made his fortune though his prosperous mining business. He accumulated assets worth some three million pesos.
80
Mexican baroque
Mexican baroque was a showy, fantastic, exaggerated baroque style. It effected all sections of Mexican fine arts: painting, architecture, music, etc.
81
House of Tiles
The Count del Valle de Orizaba family built the House of Tiles in the eighteenth century. It is important because of its distinctive facade and interior covered in expensive tiles shipped from China.
82
Count Revillagigedo
The second count of Revillagigedo was viceroy of New Spain from 1789-94. He lighted the streets, paved the streets. He also authorized the first public transportation system, set speed limits, and restricted parking. He also improved the postal service and sponsored many scientific and artistic projects.
83
Interior Provinces
Galvez created himself the the position of commandant general of the Interior Provinces. The Provinces included the northern Mexican states, Texas, greater New Mexico, and California. He created this position so he could increase Spain's military presence against foreign incursions and to better control the indigenous populations.
84
Criollos
The criollos were the social class comprising of the locally born people of pure Spanish-descent. They held a lot of the power and money in New Spain and were second only to the peninsulares. As a group, they did not appreciate most of Charles III reforms.
85
Act of Consolidation
The Act of Consolidation in 1804 the crown required the church to call in all its loans made using charitable funds. Many of these loans had been made to criollos and paying them off financially ruined many of them. Royal officials would receive the principal and pay interest on it.
86
José de Iturrigaray
José de Iturrigaray was the viceroy of New Spain from 1803-08. The turbulance in Europe because of Napolean was in crisis and José de Iturrigaray thought he could perhaps crown himself King of Mexico. Instead a group of peninsulares in 1808 kidnapped him and placed him on a ship to Spain, where he was later imprisoned.
87
Ferdinand VII
Ferdinand VII was imprisoned when Napoleon took over Spain in 1808. Napoleon gave him back the throne in 1813. To his dismay he did not come back as an absolute monarch but was forced to rule under the liberal Constitution of 1812.
88
María Luisa of Parma
María Luisa of Parma was the queen consort to Charles IV. Her lover Manuel de Godoy used her influence to become prime minister of Spain. He made many alliances that were unwise for Spain. He encouraged Charles IV to abdicate his throne.
89
Charles IV
Charles IV abdicated the throne in 1808 on advise from his prime minister and wife. He had always been an inept and ineffectual king since he took the throne in 1788. His wife and his subject tired of him quickly, waiting for him to die so his son could take the throne.
90
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
born in 1753 to moderately wealthy criollo parents. He got his bachelor's degree from the University of Mexico in 1774 and was ordained as a priest four years later. After being brought up before the Inquisition, he was assigned to Dolores. He led the first mass rebellion of peasants in New Spain against the crown. He was captured in in March 1811 and executed on charges of treason and heresy on July 31 of that year.
91
Grito de Dolores
On September 16, 1810, Hidalgo and other planning an uprising in Dolores found out that someone had told the authorities. They decided to revolt early. To begin this uprising, Hidalgo rang the church bells to gather his parishioners. He gave a speech now referred to Grito de Dolores that rallied the Indians and mestizos to begin their revolt.
92
Ignacio Allende
Ignacio Allende was a captain in the Queen's Cavalry Regiment in Guanajuato, near Dolores. He is the one that introduced Hidalgo to the "literary club" planning on revolting and creating a Mexican state. When HIdalgo decided not to take Mexico City, Allende strongly objected. If his advice had been followed, Mexico City would have been completely destroyed and the Wars for Independence may nt have lasted 11 more years.
93
José María Morelos
José María Morelos was the mestizo parish priest that took over the rebel leadership after the arrest of Hidalgo. Morelos trained a small but effective army that relied on guerrilla warfare. While he was able to encircle Mexico City in six months the Spanish broke the circle and captured many of the surrounding cities. After this Morelos was more a fugitive than a commander of a rebel army. He was captured in the fall of 1815 and executed for treason soon after.
94
Vicente Guerrero
Vicente Guerrero was one of the more effective rebel leaders after the deaths of Hidalgo and Morelos. When Agustín de Iturbide approached him with a plan for peace, he agreed-leading to Mexican independence.
95
Agustín de Iturbide
Agustín de Iturbide was a lieutenant in the Spanish army. After a few skirmishes with Guerrero's men, he approached him with a plan for peace as long as in return for his treason he got to dictate the terms of treason. He started putting the pieces for him to takeover power of Mexico.
96
Plan de Iguala
The Plan de Iguala was issued in February 24, 1821. It did not berate Spain but claimed that it was not time for Mexico to be independent. Also, it said that Mexico would be organized as a constitutional monarchy with an appropriate European prince or king as the head. Also, the Roman Catholic Church would still be the only allowed religion in the new country. Criollos and peninsulares wold be given the same rights as everyone else. Lastly, Iturbide would be given control of the Army of three Guarantees.
97
Treaty of Córdoba
The Treaty of Córdoba was signed by the captain-general of New Spain, the highest ranking Spanish official in New Spain. This was Spain realizing that the colony was forever lost. Iturbide managed to incorporate one modification to the treaty-if no suitable European monarch could be persuaded to accept the Mexican crown, a Mexican congress could choose a New World emperor.
98
La Corregidora
Discovered authorities knew about plot-warned Hidalgo. La Corregidora was Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez. She was one of the people in the "literary club" that Allende introduced to Hildago. She was important to beginning of the revolt that led to the Wars of Independence.
99
Guadalupe Victoria
Along with Guerrero, Guadalupe Victoria was on the important rebel leaders of the Wars of Independence after the capture of Morelos. Their refusal to surrender led to Mexican independence.
100
Dolores
Dolores was the parish where Hidalgo was stationed. Instead of devoting time to their spiritual needs, he began improving their economic station. Dolores is the parish where the revolt started that led to the Wars of Independence.
101
Juan de Aldama
Juan de Aldama was one of the people in the "literary club" that Allende introduced to Hildago. He was important to beginning of the revolt that led to the Wars of Independence.
102
Félix Calleja
Félix Calleja was the Spanish general routed Hidalgo and Allende in at the Puente de Calderon. This retreat indirectly led to Hidalgo's capture. He later on broke Morelos's circle around Mexico City-also, leading to Morelos's capture
103
Chilpancingo
Chilpancingo was where Morelos called a congress to discuss plans for a free Mexico when he had the upper hand over the Spanish. Six months after the congress was called, General Calleja had captured the town.
104
Ferdinand VII
Ferdinand VII was the king during the Wars of Independence in New Spain. This was not his only problem, he was dealing with insurrections all over Latin America. He assembled a powerful fighting force to quell all of the unrest in the New World. This force ended up turning on him and forced him to swear allegiance to the liberal Constitution of 1812.
105
Rafael Riego
Rafael Riego was the colonel that declared revolt against King Ferdinand in 1813. Thousands of troops supported him and this show of force persuaded King Ferdinand VII to sign the Spanish Constitution of 1812. When conservative criollos in New Spain learned of this, it convinced them to throw their lot in with the revolution of Independence.
