Midterm and Post-Midterm Flashcards
(143 cards)
1
Q
Name three communication systems of the body
A
Nervous, Immune and Endocrine
2
Q
What is CNS comprised of?
A
Brain and Spinal Cord
3
Q
Name the parts of the autonomic NS
A
Parasympathetic and Sympathetic
4
Q
Parasympathetic system roles
A
Rest and digest
5
Q
Name of the neurons that play a crucial role in information transmission in parasympathetic NS
A
Cholinergic Neurons
6
Q
Role of the Sympathetic NS
A
Fight or Flight
7
Q
What is the major neurotransmitter associated with sympathetic NS
A
Norepinephrine
8
Q
Is there any interaction between the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems?
A
Yes, sympathetic and parasympathetic systems interact to influence each other’s functions. E.g., parasympathetic is responsible for arousal, sympathetic for orgasm.
9
Q
Somatic Nervous System
A
Subdivision of the PSN that allows for movement and muscle control.
10
Q
Afferent pathway
A
Pathway used to carry information from the sensory sites to the brain
11
Q
Efferent pathway
A
Pathway used to carry information from the brain to the motor sites of the body
12
Q
Three components of the NS
A
Input, Integration and Output
13
Q
Frontal Lobe Role
A
Language, Emotional regulation, Executive Functioning
14
Q
Parietal Lobe
A
Sensory information of the body
15
Q
Temporal lobe
A
Auditory information processing, involved in some aspects of learning, memory and language
16
Q
Occipital lobe
A
Interpretation of visual information. Damage to that part of the brain may affect vision and cause concussions that affect balance and vision
17
Q
What are subcortical structures responsible for?
A
Motivation, emotion, learning, memory, homeostasis, containing a sensory relay station
18
Q
Amygdala
A
Fear/Anxiety/Reward value association
19
Q
Hippocampus
A
Learning and Memory
20
Q
Hypothalamus
A
Homeostasis, hormonal relay of the body
21
Q
Thalamus
A
Relay station of the brain
22
Q
What is midbrain made of and what do these structures do
A
Substantia Nigra, Ventral tegmental area, both involved in mood, reward and addiction
23
Q
What does hindbrain contain
A
Medulla, pons, cerebellum
24
Q
Cerebellum role
A
Balance, contains procedural memories
25
Microglia
Responsible for immune response, homeostasis, supporting neural function
26
Oligodendrocyte
Produces myelin sheath around axons, nurtures and sustains the environment around neurons
27
What is the oligodendrocyte of the PNS
Schwann cell
28
Astrocyte
Neural support, damage reparation, regulation of neuronal communicaton
29
PNS alternative to Astrocytes
Satellite cells
30
What were Berthold's Observations? (3)
1. Testes are transplantable
2. Transplanted testes can function and produce sperm
3. There are no specific nerves directing testicular function
31
What evidence would be sufficient for establishing the effects of hormones? (3)
1. Hormonally dependent behavior should disappear when the source of the hormone is removed or the actions of the hormone are blocked
2. After the behavior stops, restoration of the missing hormonal source or its hormone should reinstate the absent behavior
3. Hormone concentrations and behavior in question should be covariant (behavior should only be observed when hormone concentration is relatively high)
32
Quasi-Experimental Design
Falls between experimental and non-experimental designs. Aims to investigate cause and effect relationships but lacks on key elements such as random assignment
33
Antigen
Can be a hormone: a molecule that can bind to a specific antibody
34
Antibody
A protein made by plasma cells in response to an antigen - has a specific site for the antigen to bind
35
How are antibodies produced?
An antigen of interest is injected into an animal to increase the antibody count
36
Immunoassays
Analytical techniques used for qualification of an analyte (hormone) based on the antigen-body reaction
37
Bioassays
Testing the effects of hormone and measure its biological activity on a living animal
38
Chorionic hormone
Hormone associated with pregnancy
39
Radioimmunoassays
Based on a principle of competitive binding of antibody to an antigen that results in change in radioactivity. Has two types of hormones: 1. Hot (labeled with radiation) and cold (unlabeled); levels of radiation show the concentration
40
EIA and ELIZA
Works on the principle of competitive binding of an antibody to an antigen. Instead of using radiolabeled hormone, it uses an enzymatic tag that changed the color of a substrate molecule.
41
Immunocytochemistry
A technique applied to cells to determine locations of a hormone in specific cells
42
Immunohistochemistry
A technique applied to tissues to determine locations of a hormone in specific tissues
43
Autoradiography
Radiolabeled hormones are injected into tissue to determine hormonal uptake and indicate receptor location. If a radiolabeled hormone is bound to a ligand, it will emit radiation that will be seen as dark spots on a film
44
Blot Test
Used to identify several proteins at the same time.
45
In Situ Hybridization
Determining whether a particular substance is produced in a specific tissue. Similar to autoradiography, but n this case a radiolabeled cDNA s introduced and if a mRNA of interest is present the cDNA will hybridize with it and appear as dark spots on the film
46
Intracrine mediation
Intracrine substances regulate intracellular events
47
Autocrine mediation
Autocrine substances influence the same cells that secreted them
48
Paracrine mediation
Paracrine cells secrete chemicals that affect adjacent cells
49
Endocrine mediation
Endocrine cells secrete chemicals into bloodstream where they can influence distant cells
50
Ectocrine mediation
Ectocrine substances are released into the environment to communicate with others
51
What neurohormones are produced by Hypothalamus or Pituitary?
Oxytocin, norepinephrine, Gonadotropin-releasing hormone, Corticotropin releasing hormone
52
What makes pancreas special?
It is both endocrine and exocrine. It secretes digestive juices into the intestine via ducts and hormones directly into the bloodstream with its endocrine compartment
53
Define resistance
Regular levels of a certain hormone are not enough to cause an effect due to insufficient levels of hormone receptors
54
Major chemical classes of hormones (3)
Polypeptides, Steroids, Amines
55
Hydrophillic hormones
Need a receptor to get into a cell
56
Hydrophobic (lipid soluble) hormones
Need a carrier protein to circulate in blood
57
Chorionic Hormones
Hormones produced by placenta
58
Corticotropin-releasing hormone
Synthesized within the anterior portion of Pvam stimulates secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone
59
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Synthesized within the preoptic area of the anterior hypothalamus and it controls the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) -> Nourishes sexual glands
60
Growth hormone-releasing hormone
Secreted within the ventromedial nucleus and arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus and it stimulates growth hormone -> Tells the glands that produce growth hormone to release it
61
Thyrotropin releasing hormone
Synthesized mainly in the paraventricular and anterior paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus. Stimulates cells in the anterior pituitary gland to produce and release thyroid-stimulating hormone
62
Melanotropic releasing hormone
Nourishes glands that produce melatonin
63
Kisspeptin
Has an important role in initiating secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone at puberty; involved in sexual maturation
64
Dopamine
Primary prolactin-inhibitory hormone
65
Somatostatin
Mainly acts to inhibit secretion of growth hormone and thyroid secretion hormone through the inhibitory effects on insulin, glucagon and secretin production
Present in both hypothalamus and delta cells in the pancreas
66
Turner Syndrome
Congenital Condition; Lack of X or damage to the second X or Y; Female external appearance, limited ovarian development; unable to attain puberty without intervention
Turner - Cannot turn
67
What are androgens responsible for?
Differentiation of external genitalia
68
What is DHT crucial for?
It is crucial for the process of genital fusing
69
Klineifelter Syndrome (XXY)
The presence of Y chromosome is sufficient for SRY gene activation and masculinization -> Sexed as male at birth
70
XYY Individuals
Taller and more prone to learning disabilities
71
Androgen insensitivity syndrome
Functional androgen receptors are absent. Vagina is reduced in length and lacking utero and fallopian tube
72
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
lack 21 hydroxylase; little to no impact on male individuals; causes male genitalia development in females
73
5-a reductase deficiency
Genetic males with this deficiency are born with ambiguous genitalia and small testes; considered females at birth.
At puberty, testosterone masculinizes the body, causing hair growth and the genitalia to develop, resembling a male-typical penis and scrotum
74
Swyer Syndrome
Rare disorder; sex glands fail to develop in XY individual that lacks SRY gene
have functionless gonads and genitalia that resembles female's
People will not experience puberty and will have high cancer chances if there is no surgical intervention
75
Oval testes
Incomplete gonadal differentiation
76
Specificity of anterior pituitary - hypothalamus communication
The two communicate via closed portal.
Hypothalamus stimulates anterior pituitary to release hormones into the blood.
77
Posterior pituitary - hypothalamus communication
The two have a direct connection, unlike anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary doesn't need a closed portal or a mediator for communication
78
Hormones released by the posterior pituitary
Oxytocin and vasopressin
79
Vasopressin and its roles
Antidiuretic hormone
Helps retain water and slow bleeding
vasoPRESSin - think of pressing down on the wound to slow down bleeding
80
Oxytocin and its roles
Administered during birth to trigger uterine contractions. Also triggers sucking reflex in babies
81
Pineal gland role and location
Located at the top of midbrain
Responsible for melatonin production and circadian rhythm control
82
Melatonin
Synthesized from serotonin
Melatonin levels rise in the absence of light and fall in the presence of light
Responsible for drowsiness
83
Inhibitory Hypothalamic Hormones
Dopamine and Somatostatin
83
What triggers thyroid to produce hormones
Thyroid produces hormones in response to thyrotropin - releasing hormone produced by anterior pituitary
83
Excitatory Hypothalamic hormones
Corticotropin-releasing hormone
Gonadotropin releasing hormone
Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone
Kisspeptin
83
Thyroid produces _____ substances dependent on the dietary level of _____
Iodinated substances, iodate
83
Role of triiodothyronine and thyroxine
Regulation of body metabolism, brain and NS development control, sexual maturation, temperature regulation
83
Low levels of ____ result in reduced levels of ______ function
iodine, thyroid function
84
Main hormones produced by thyroid
Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4), both are fat soluble
84
Parathyroid Hormones
Parathyroid hormone (PH) and calcitonin
84
Parathyroid hormone function
Increases blood calcium levels
84
Calcitonin
Decreases blood calcium levels
84
Glucagon
- Released from alpha cells
- Travels to the liver and breaks
down stored glycogen
- Opposes insulin and increases
blood levels of glucose
84
What does pancreas contain
Alpha, beta and delta cells
85
Insulin
Produced by beta cells
Mediates efficient energy movement from blood to cells
The only hormone that can lower blood sugar
86
What is the only hormone that can lower blood sugar
Insulin
87
Type 1 diabetes
Congenital, autoimmune, pancreatic cells are destroyed by the immune system
88
Type 2 diabetes
Developed due to poor diet
Body is unable to produce enough insulin
Insulin may also work improperly
89
Adrenal gland composition
Adrenal cortex (70%)
Adrenal medulla (30%)
90
Adrenal Cortex Composition
1. Zona Glomerulosa
2. Zona Fasciculata
3. Zona Reticularis
91
Zona glomerulosa
Releases aldosterone in response to low sodium
GLOMERULES - REFERENCE
92
Zona Fasciculata
Releases glucocorticoids
FASCICULUS - REFERENCE
93
Zone Reticularis
Releases sex steroid hormones
RECTICULARIS - Sex/Rectum uk
94
Adrenal Medulla and hormone production
Releases three MONOAMINE hormones
1. Epinephrine
2. Norepinephrine
3. Dopamine
95
Gonads and primary hormones
Primarily produce steroid hormones that are required for gamete development
Gonadal hormones mediate behaviors necessary to bring the sperm and egg together
96
What mediates gonadal function
Gonadotropin produced in the pituitary is the primary mediator of gonadal function
97
Testes
Contain semiferous tubules where sperm cells undergo spermatogenesis
98
Sertoli cells
Located along the semiferous tubules and play a role in spermatogenesis
99
Leydig cells
Located between the tubes and testes
Produce androgen/testosterone in response to luteinizing hormone (from anterior pituitary)
100
Corpora Lutea (in ovaries)
Secrete progestins that support the uterine lining
101
Theca cells participate in _____ _____
Estrogen synthesis
102
Placental hormones role
Act to stimulate gonadal, mammary, adrenal and thyroid functions
103
Placental hormones list
Chorionic gonadotropin
Chorionic somatomammotropin
Chorionic corticotropin
Chorionic tyrotropin
104
Chorionic gonadotropin
Maintains corpora lutea functions and progesterone secretion, prevents ovulation
105
Relaxin
Produced by corpora lutea, softens pelvic ligaments for birth
106
What is a specificity of gastrointestinal hormones
They have intracrine and autocrine mediation which is a more primitive version of mediation
107
Main gastrointestinal hormones
Secretin
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Gastrin
Ghrelin
108
Secretin
Sends signals to pancreas and triggers juice secretion for facilitating digestion
Inhibits gastrointestinal tract movement and gastric acid secretion
109
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
MAY BE involved in satiation
Causes exocrine pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes
Causes gallbladder to contract and release bile
Was found in the brain where it functions as a neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator
110
Gastrin functions
Induces secretion of water and electrolytes by stomach, liver and pancreas
111
Ghrelin
Stimulates GHRH release form anterior pituitary
Ghrelin levels reach its maximum before a meal and drop after
112
Physiological by-product hormonal regulation
Once the hormone causes a physiological change, restoring the balance, secretion stops
113
Negative feedback
Aimed to stimulate the system by reducing the hormone release rate or output
114
Positive feedback
Rarer than negative feedback, aimed to increase the production of hormone
115
Up-regulation
Hormone causes an increase in the production of receptors for that hormone
116
Down-regulation
Hormone overproduction causes an occupation or reduction of receptors
117
Steroid hormone receptors and steroid interaction
Located in either the nucleus or cytosol
Steroids are fat soluble -> can penetrate the membrane and bind to a receptor
Once bound they migrate to the nucleus if not already there
118
Protein and peptide hormone receptors are embedded in the ____
Membrane
119
Three domains of protein and peptide hormone receptors
Extracellular - binds to a hormone, forming a hormone-receptor complex
Transmemrane
Intracellular or cytoplasmic
120
Protein and peptide hormones with intrinsic enzymatic activity are found in the ______ domain
Intracellular/cytoplasmic
121
Protein and peptide hormone that require a second messenger are coupled with _____
A G-protein
122
Chromosomal Sex
Defined during fertilization
Determined by X or Y chromosome given by the sperm
123
Germinal Ridge and what makes it bipotential
Its ability to develop into either testes or ovaries
124
What is requires for the germinal ridge to develop into testes
SRY hormone and SOX9 hormone
125
What happens if either SRY or SOX9 is not present?
Germinal ridge develops into ovaries?
126
What do testes secrete and what does it cause
They secrete androgens which leads to a development of a male
127
What happens in the presence of ovaries or lack of gonads?
Female system is developed
128
What systems are present early in the embryonic development?
Mullerian and wulfian systems are both present
129
What hormones should be present for the wolfian system to develop
Mullerian inhibitory hormone and testosterone
130
What are androgens important for and what happens in their absence
They are important for the formation of a penis and a vagina forms in their absence
131
Organizational/Activational hypothesis of hormonal sexual differentiation
Sex hormones act during prenatal state to permanently ORGANIZE the nervous system and during adult life they have an ACTIVATIONAL effect
132
Female sexual desire
Is cyclical due to a cyclical GnRH hormone secretion which leads to a luteinizing hormone secretion which causes ovulation and leads to sexual desire
133
Male sexual desire
Seems to be constant due to a constant release of testosterone
