Midterm Exam

Question 1

An argument

Answer 1

Is a set of statements called premises. Premises comprise a reason for believing a conclusion

Question 2

In a good argument

Answer 2

The premises support the conclusion

Question 3

Deductive arguments

Answer 3

Guarantee their conclusions

Question 4

Ampliative arguments

Answer 4

Make their conclusions probable

Question 5

Premise

Answer 5

A statement offered in support of a conclusion

Question 6

Conclusion

Answer 6

The main point of an argument

Question 7

Validity

Answer 7

An argument is valid just in case if all the premises are true then its conclusion must be true as well

A valid argument has a structure in which the truth of the premises would force the conclusion to be true

Question 8

Soundness

Answer 8

An argument is sound just in case it is valid and all its premises and conclusion are true

Question 9

Logical form

Answer 9

The quality of an argument which makes it valid or invalid

Question 10

Fallacy

Answer 10

An error in reasoning

Question 11

Hypothetical syllogism (valid)

Answer 11

If A then B
If B then C
If A then C

Question 12

Modus Tollens

Answer 12

If A then C
Not C
Not A

(Deductive argument)

Question 13

Modus Pollens

Answer 13

If A then B
B
A
(Inductive argument)

Question 14

Inductive arguments

Answer 14

All inductive arguments are invalid. They are strong over weak.
Strength: the more likely the conclusion is to be true based on the truth of the premises, the stronger the argument

Strength = validity

Question 15

Inductive arguments

Answer 15

cannot be sound but can be cogent

Cogency: an inductive argument is cogent when it is both strong and has all true premises

Cogency = soundness

Question 16

Three main kinds of inductive arguments

Answer 16

Inductive generalization, argument to the best explanation, argument by analogy

Question 17

Inductive argument ( inductive, generalization)

Answer 17

Two main factors determine the strength of an inductive generalization
1. The size of the sample.
2. The representation or biasedness of the sample.

Question 18

Inductive argument ( argument to the best explanation)

Answer 18

If A then B
B
A

Question 19

Inductive argument (argument, analogy)

Answer 19

X and Y have properties a, b and c,
X has property d
Therefore, Y has d as well

Two main factors determine the strength of an analogical argument:

the relevance of the similarities between the two things being compared and the number of relevant similarities identified. The more relevant similarities there are and the stronger the connection between them, the stronger the analogical argument becomes.

Question 20

Three main theories of knowledge

Answer 20

Foundationalism, Coherentism, Reliabilism

Question 21

Foundationalism

Answer 21

We acquire knowledge by starting
with basic beliefs and building upon them.
a. Basic beliefs are non-inferentially justified.
b. Problems
i. Which kinds of beliefs count as epistemically
basic?
ii. We may have very little knowledge.
Problem: Tends to lead to skepticism because we wind up
having little knowledge.

Question 22

Coherentism

Answer 22

A belief counts as knowledge if it is true,
and it has a sufficient amount of support from other
beliefs.
a. Web of justification
b. Two problems
i. It is too permissive (many false beliefs can be
justified this way as well).

ii. Your beliefs could be justified if you were a
brain in a vat.

Question 23

Reliabilism

Answer 23

A belief counts as knowledge if it is true and was formed by a reliable process.
a. Problem: How do we know which processes are
reliable?
b. Problem?: Violates the KK principle—You can know
X but not know that you know x.

Is Justified True Belief (JTB) enough for knowledge? Consider
the following scenario:
One morning Eleanor is walking through the train station,
having just arrived on her usual commuter train. She
glances up at the big clock in the center of the station and
sees that it says 8:45. Eleanor has noted the time on that
clock on many occasions over the last several years, and it
has always been accurate. So without looking at her watch
or checking the time on her cell phone, Eleanor forms the
belief that it is 8:45. And her belief is true; it is 8:45.
However, at 8:45 the previous evening, the clock broke,
and it has not yet been repaired. So it has said it is 8:45
for the last twelve hours. It is just a lucky accident that
Eleanor happened to glance at the clock at exactly 8:45.
Thus it is just a lucky accident that the belief she formed is
true.1
This is called the Gettier problem, after Edmund Gettier, who
introduced the problem in a famous paper in 1963. It
appears that you can have a justified true belief that isn’t
knowledge. Other examples can be formulated.

Question 24

Epistemology—three theories
(Foundationalism, Coherentism, Reliabilism)

Answer 24

The study of knowledge.
–What do we know (if anything)?
–What can we know?
–What is required for knowledge?
–What is knowledge?

Question 25

Strength

Answer 25

refers to the quality or degree of validity, soundness, or effectiveness of an argument or reasoning. It is a measure of how well the evidence, logic, or premises support a conclusion or claim. A strong argument is one that is well-supported and has a high level of credibility and persuasiveness. It's like having a solid foundation for your reasoning!

Question 26

Cogency

Answer 26

refers to the quality of an argument being clear, logical, and convincing. It means that the premises of the argument are relevant, reliable, and provide strong support for the conclusion. A cogent argument is one that is well-structured, avoids fallacies, and presents compelling evidence or reasoning. It's like having a strong and persuasive case for your point of view!

Question 27

know why it is not acceptable to explain piety simply by citing things the gods have done

Answer 27

It's not acceptable to explain piety simply by citing things the gods have done because it lacks critical thinking and reasoning. Just because the gods have done something doesn't necessarily make it pious. We need to examine the nature of piety and understand its underlying principles and values. Simply relying on divine actions without further analysis would be an oversimplification and could lead to flawed understanding. Critical thinking allows us to delve deeper into the concept of piety and evaluate it based on rationality and moral considerations.

Question 28

know why it is not enough to just cite what the gods love and what the gods hate

Answer 28

It's not enough to just cite what the gods love and hate when discussing matters of piety because it raises questions about the nature of morality and ethics. What the gods love or hate may not necessarily align with what is morally right or wrong. Simply relying on divine preferences without critical examination would be a form of moral relativism. It's important to engage in critical thinking and ethical reasoning to understand the principles and values that underlie piety, rather than relying solely on divine commands or preferences.

Question 29

know the difference between saying the something is good because God loves it and that God loves something because it is good

Answer 29

The difference between saying something is good because God loves it and saying God loves something because it is good lies in the understanding of morality. When we say something is good because God loves it, it suggests that the goodness of an action or object is solely determined by God's preference. In this view, morality is subjective and dependent on divine command. On the other hand, saying God loves something because it is good implies that there is an independent standard of goodness that exists outside of God's will. In this perspective, God recognizes and loves things that are inherently good based on an objective standard of morality. These two viewpoints have been subjects of philosophical debates regarding the nature of morality and the relationship between God and ethics.

Question 30

negativity bias

Answer 30

Sure, I can simplify it for you! Negativity bias means that our brains have a tendency to focus more on negative things than positive things. We pay more attention to bad experiences or information and they have a stronger impact on us. It's like our minds have a natural inclination to give more importance to the negative stuff. This bias can affect how we think, feel, and make decisions.

Question 31

availability bias

Answer 31

Availability bias is like taking a mental shortcut by using the first info that pops into your head to make a decision.

Question 32

bandwagon bias

Answer 32

Bandwagon bias, also known as the "herd mentality," is when people tend to adopt certain beliefs or behaviors because many others are doing the same. It's like jumping on the bandwagon and following the crowd without critically evaluating the information or considering alternatives. This bias can influence our decisions and actions, sometimes leading to conformity rather than independent thinking. (Bandwagon bias is when people follow what others are doing instead of making their own choices.)

Question 33

affect bias

Answer 33

Affect bias is when our emotions or feelings influence our judgments or decisions. It's like our feelings can sway us towards certain choices, even if they may not be the most rational or logical ones. Emotions can have a strong impact on how we perceive and evaluate information, sometimes leading us to make biased judgments based on our current emotional state. It's important to be aware of this bias and try to balance our emotions with critical thinking. (Affect bias is when our feelings steer our decisions, not just logic.)

Question 34

confirmation bias

Answer 34

Confirmation bias is when we seek out information that confirms our existing beliefs or opinions, while ignoring or downplaying evidence that contradicts them. It's like we have a tendency to favor information that supports what we already think, which can hinder our ability to consider alternative perspectives or make objective judgments. (Confirmation bias is when we only notice things that agree with what we already believe.)

Question 35

self-interest bias

Answer 35

Self-interest bias is when we tend to favor information or make decisions that benefit ourselves personally. It's like we have a natural inclination to prioritize our own interests, sometimes at the expense of objectivity or fairness. This bias can influence how we perceive and interpret information, leading us to make choices that align with our own self-interest rather than considering the broader perspective or the needs of others. (Self-interest bias is when we choose things that are best for us, not always fairly.)

Question 36

belief bias

Answer 36

Belief bias is when we let our existing beliefs influence our reasoning and judgment. We tend to accept arguments that align with our beliefs, even if they're not logically sound. It's like our beliefs can cloud our ability to think critically and objectively evaluate information. (Belief bias is when we think something's true just because it fits what we already believe.)

Question 37

short-term thinking bias

Answer 37

Short-term thinking bias is when we focus more on immediate outcomes rather than considering long-term consequences. It's like prioritizing instant gratification over future benefits or potential risks. This bias can lead to decisions that may not be in our best interest in the long run. (Short-term thinking bias means we often choose quick rewards over better ones later on.)

Question 38

Know the difference between relativism and skepticism.

Answer 38

Relativism is the belief that truth and morality are subjective and vary from person to person or culture to culture. Skepticism, on the other hand, is the questioning of knowledge and the idea that absolute certainty is difficult to attain. It's like being doubtful and questioning things rather than accepting them at face value.

Question 39

Know the difference between individual moral relativism and cultural (moral) relativism.

Answer 39

Sure, I can help with that! Individual moral relativism is the belief that moral judgments are subjective and vary from person to person. It suggests that what is morally right or wrong can differ based on an individual's personal beliefs and values. On the other hand, cultural (moral) relativism is the belief that moral judgments are subjective and vary from culture to culture. It suggests that what is considered morally right or wrong can differ across different societies and cultures.

Question 40

Know the difference between descriptive relativism and cultural moral relativism

Answer 40

Descriptive relativism is the observation that different cultures or individuals have different moral beliefs or practices. It describes the existence of moral diversity without making any judgments about which beliefs or practices are right or wrong. On the other hand, cultural moral relativism is the belief that moral judgments are relative to specific cultures. It suggests that what is considered morally right or wrong is determined by the cultural norms and values of a particular society. Cultural moral relativism goes beyond the observation of diversity and asserts that moral judgments should be understood within the context of a specific culture.

Question 41

Know reasons why cultural moral relativism is not a good theory

Answer 41

Cultural moral relativism has some criticisms because it can lead to moral relativism, where all moral beliefs are considered equally valid. This can make it difficult to criticize or challenge harmful practices in other cultures. Additionally, cultural moral relativism may undermine the idea of universal human rights, as it suggests that moral standards are determined solely by cultural norms. It also raises questions about how to resolve moral disagreements between cultures. These are some reasons why cultural moral relativism is not universally accepted as a comprehensive moral theory.

Question 42

Know the difference between global and local skepticism and relativism.

Answer 42

In the context of skepticism and relativism, global skepticism refers to the position that doubts the possibility of having any knowledge or certainty about the external world or any specific domain of knowledge. It casts doubt on the reliability of our senses, reasoning, and even the existence of an external reality. On the other hand, local skepticism is more specific and targeted. It questions certain areas of knowledge or specific claims without rejecting the possibility of knowledge altogether. Similarly, global relativism is the belief that all truth and moral values are relative and subjective, with no objective or universal standards. It asserts that what is true or morally right varies from person to person or culture to culture. In contrast, local relativism applies relativistic principles to specific domains or contexts, acknowledging that different perspectives and values may exist within those specific areas. So, to summarize, global skepticism and relativism cast doubt or reject knowledge and truth universally, while local skepticism and relativism are more specific and targeted, questioning or relativizing certain areas or contexts.

Question 43

Know the difference between a priori and a posteriori truths.

Answer 43

Sure, I can help with that! In philosophy, a priori truths are knowledge or truths that can be known independently of experience or empirical evidence. They are based on reason, logic, or pure thought. A posteriori truths, on the other hand, are knowledge or truths that are known through experience or empirical evidence. They are based on observations, sensory perception, or scientific investigation. So, a priori truths are independent of experience, while a posteriori truths are dependent on experience.