Midterm Exam 2

Question 1

Development of Facial Expressions in Infancy

Answer 1

Facial expressions begin as a reflex and then turn voluntary. There are eight distinct facial expressions that occur by 8 months of age. The development of facial expressions is generally universal, and we tend to use similar facial expressions for similar emotions.

Question 2

Facial Feedback System

Answer 2

when our facial expression influences our emotions.

Question 3

Social Referencing

Answer 3

Social referencing is when you use other people in your environment to determine how you should feel. This occurs a lot in infants who hurt themselves and check to see how bad it is.

Question 4

Development of Crying in Infancy

Answer 4

The developmental peak of crying occurs around 3 months of age. The most amount of crying occurs late in the day, and parents can tell the difference between the different types of crying.

Question 5

Development of Smiling in Infancy

Answer 5

Smiling begins as a reflex during sleep in the form of an endogenous smile. A few weeks after birth, this turns into an exogenous smile, which is a reflex that occurs after some sort of external stimulation like a mother’s voice. Finally, it transforms into social smiling, which is a voluntary action to certain events if one is pleased.

Question 6

Development of Laughing in Infancy

Answer 6

Laughing appears around 4 months and begins as a giggle reflex in response to physical stimulation. It then is developed into a cognitive interpretation of entertaining stimuli. Laughing is also often influenced by operant conditioning, where fake laughter may be practiced.

Question 7

Why Anger Develops Later in Infancy

Answer 7

A cognitive prerequisite to feeling anger is the feeling of desire for control. This occurs around sensorimotor stages 4-6 because this is when infants become goal-oriented, which means that they develop that sense of control. They can’t feel anger before this because they haven’t developed the feelings that cause anger at that point.

Question 8

Why Temper Tantrums Peak in Infancy

Answer 8

This is because temper tantrums are usually a means of expressing anger. One of the main forms of expression is speech. Children don’t develop language until around 2-3 years, meaning that they begin to express that anger through temper tantrums at that age.

Question 9

Mirror Self-Recognition

Answer 9

These studies put infants in front of a mirror and then put some sort of mark on their faces. If the infants reach for that mark, it shows that they recognize that the person in the mirror is themselves. This ability develops between 18 months and 2 years of age.

Question 10

Gender Differences in Self-Recognition

Answer 10

Girls develop self-conscious feelings earlier than boys because we have more expectations surrounding them and are more polite than boys early on. The self-conscious feelings at this age are regarding proudness and embarrassment.

Question 11

Basic Qualities of Measuring Temperament

Answer 11

To measure the emotional distress in temperament, we measure fearfulness, anger, and positive affect (seeming happy). To measure behavior in temperament, we measure activity level, persistence (attention span), and regularity (predictability).

Question 12

Basic Classifications of Temperament

Answer 12

Easy: easy to deal with; regular and happy

Reactive: gets distressed easily; not positive

Cautious: between easy and reactive; the way they respond depends on their comfort

Question 13

Criticisms of Classifications of Temperament

Answer 13

1/3 of babies can’t be classified into one of the categories. They are very vague.

Question 14

Stability of Temperament

Answer 14

Temperament usually remains stable throughout the lifetime.

Question 15

G-E Correlation Relevance to Temperament

Answer 15

Parents may react to the different types of temperament. If they have a difficult baby, they may become either detached or overly imposing. The parents have expectations of the child’s behavior that were not met, which can cause the child to become even more difficult.

Question 16

Cross-Cultural Differences in Temperament

Answer 16

The stability of temperament can change based on what culture values what things. In America, positivity is more stable than fearfulness because we value it more. This changes in different countries, like in collectivist cultures, where fearfulness is valued more and, therefore, is more stable.

Question 17

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

Answer 17

Bowlby believed that attachment is essential for infants to survive. The bond of attachment between a caregiver and an infant secures the fact that the infant will be taken care of because they need someone devoted to them.

Question 18

Attachment Behaviors

Answer 18

Using the caregiver as a secure base when exploring new things

Separation anxiety

Stranger anxiety

Happy greetings to the returning caregiver

Question 19

Attachment Behavior Assessment through the Strange Situation Test

Answer 19

These behaviors are assessed because the infant is put into a location that they have never been in with their caregiver. This tests to see if they use their caregiver as a secure base. Then, a stranger enters the room, which tests stranger anxiety. Then, the caregiver leaves the room, which tests separation anxiety and stranger anxiety. Finally, the caregiver enters the room, which tests whether the infant is giving a happy greeting to the caregiver and if they calm down quickly.

Question 20

Secure Attachment

Answer 20

An attachment classification where the infant displays each one of the attachment behaviors.

Question 21

Insecure Attachment

Answer 21

An attachment classification where the infant does not display any of the attachment behaviors.

Question 22

Avoidant Attachment

Answer 22

A type of insecure attachment where the infant is prematurely independent. They play with their toys the whole time and don’t seem to care if the caregiver is present.

Question 23

Anxious-Resistant Attachment

Answer 23

A type of insecure attachment where the infant is tense and worried the whole time. They will cling to their caregiver with no playing, and when the caregiver returns, they will not be calmed easily.

Question 24

Disorganized Attachment

Answer 24

A type of insecure attachment where a child demonstrates their attachment in a way that has not been categorized. Not one test can determine this, and this is often found in children with past trauma.

Question 25

Influences on Strange Situation Test: Caregiving Qualities

Answer 25

If a caregiver practices contact comfort, prompt responses, and positive interactions with their child, the child is more likely to be securely attached. If a caregiver does not do these things, the child is more likely to be insecurely attached.

Question 26

Influences on the Strange Situation Test: Infant Temperament

Answer 26

The type of temperament a baby has will influence their reactions to the strange situation test. These reactions are not completely because of their attachment style, but rather, their temperament plays a role too.

Question 27

Influences on the Strange Situation Test: Culture

Answer 27

In many cultures, most infants display secure attachment. In America, we have the least number of anxious/avoidant infants. Other countries see more anxious/avoidant infants than we do. This could be due to our individualistic vs. collectivistic culture differences.

Question 28

Brain Development Patterns in Early Childhood

Answer 28

Most of the brain growth is occurring in the frontal lobe. This is because there is a lot of synaptogenesis and myelination occurring in the frontal cortex.

Question 29

Experience-Dependant Plasticity

Answer 29

Modification in synaptic connections based on environment and experience. Essentially, this means that the environment can affect the way the brain develops. Occurs during early childhood.

Question 30

Hemispheric Lateralization and Specialization

Answer 30

This is when the left and right brains begin to develop different skills and control different things. This is also when one begins to develop a dominant hand. There is a corresponding growth of the corpus callosum. This occurs in early childhood.

Question 31

Facial Feature Development in Early Childhood

Answer 31

You begin to lose the babyish features in this stage, where the facial proportions and the head-to-body proportions even out.

Question 32

Body Growth in Early Childhood

Answer 32

One will experience an increase in both height and weight, averaging a growth of 4 pounds and 4 inches per year.

Question 33

Dynamic Systems Perspective in Early Childhood

Answer 33

This perspective sees the development of gross motor skills as due to multiple factors, meaning both genetics and the person’s environment.

Question 34

Gross Motor Skill Development in Early Childhood

Answer 34

Running: children need to acquire balance to do this. Throwing: Young children use their fine motor skills to throw and don’t have good aim due to their stance, strength, or timing. Catching: Young children typically smack their hands together, close their eyes while catching, and keep their feet planted in one place.

Question 35

Grasping in Early Childhood

Answer 35

This continues to develop as children gain fine motor control of their fingers.

Question 36

Writing and Drawing Development in Early Childhood

Answer 36

Scribbling: sensorimotor based Post-Hoc Identification: after drawing, a child will identify the image (no goal going into it). Symbolic Representation: Using lines to create intentional shapes. This includes tadpole people. Clearly Depicted Images: These drawings are more realistic and can vary on gender. Girls tend to draw stereotypes at eye level with warm colors. Boys tend to draw stereotypes at a birds-eye view with cooler tones.

Question 37

Handedness in Early Childhood

Answer 37

Handedness is genetically determined, but based on the environment, it is possible to specialize in the hand you are not dominant in due to parental influence. This is because we live in a right-handed world.

Question 38

Sleeping Functions in Early Childhood

Answer 38

Children at this age spend around 10-12 hours a day sleeping, mostly in REM. This is important because it gives the brain time to develop and gives the body time to grow.

Question 39

Transitional Objects

Answer 39

These are items that children use to soothe themselves to sleep. They become a problem because kids won’t be able to sleep without them if they get lost or broken.

Question 40

Nightmares

Answer 40

8/10 dreams contain anxiety-inducing content. Children have a harder time recovering from these distressing dreams because of their poor emotional regulation and coping skills.

Question 41

Night Terrors

Answer 41

these are scary thoughts or visions that occur during non-REM sleep, unlike nightmares. They are so frightening that they wake you up, and it is very hard to fall back asleep. If they are reoccurring, it could be diagnosed as a disorder.

Question 42

Insomnia

Answer 42

This is a disorder where a person is very tired but can’t fall asleep. The most common cause of this is anxiety, so most treatments focus on coping with anxiety. Children have daily stress, but then they can also be stressed from imagined fears.

Question 43

Effects of Sleep Deprivation

Answer 43

Some effects include poor cognition, bad moods, hyperactive behavior based on the little energy to inhibit it, illnesses, and accidents.

Question 44

Piaget's Preoperational Stage

Answer 44

Refers to children between 2-7 years old. This is when children don’t readily recognize reversible logic.

Question 45

Symbolic Representation

Answer 45

This skill gained in the preoperational stage is when children can use symbols to represent objects and ideas. It is evident in make-believe/sociodramatic play, having imaginary friends, understanding scale model toys, and drawing (more maturely).

Question 46

New Types of Play

Answer 46

Make-believe play is when a child uses objects that they have available to represent something that is not available. Sociodramatic play is when a child takes on roles that you don’t have in life.

Question 47

Irreversibility

Answer 47

This is when a child can’t understand reversible actions. An example of this is when a child doesn’t understand that you can reverse the action of smashing playdough. Prevalent in the preoperational stage.

Question 48

Centration

Answer 48

This is when a child focuses on one thing and ignores everything else occurring. An example of this would be a child focusing solely on the height of a glass to determine its volume. Prevalent in the preoperational stage.

Question 49

Static Thinking

Answer 49

This is when a child focuses on a start and end state rather than the process. An example of this would be a child struggling to understand that their parents were children once. Prevalent in the preoperational stage.

Question 50

Failure of Conservation Tasks in Early Childhood

Answer 50

Irreversibility, centration, and static thinking all result in this inability to understand that the fundamental qualities of objects don’t change if the superficial characteristics do. An example of these tasks would include the water task and the play dough task.

Question 51

Transductive and Pre-Causal Reasoning

Answer 51

This is the logical failure where children believe that correlation implies causation when, in fact, it does not. An example of this logical error is that a child gets a bad grade on a test, and immediately after, their parents divorce. The child then believes that the divorce was caused by their bad grade. Children have a wandering mind, so if they don’t receive an answer as to why something is occurring, they will guess the causation. Prevalent in early childhood.

Question 52

Theory of Mind

Answer 52

This describes when a child can’t understand that not everyone thinks or sees the same as they do. This causes the failure of a physical perspective-taking task where a child is asked to tell a tester what the tester sees on their side of a mountain. The child will respond with only what they see, not the tester.

Question 53

Social Perspective Taking

Answer 53

This is specifically when a child doesn’t understand that people know the same things as they do. A child will assume everyone knows the same things as they do at this age. This explains why children are so bad at lying. When they get better, it indicates that they have social perspective-taking skills. Not prevalent in preoperational stage.

Question 54

Animism

Answer 54

This is when children imagine that inanimate objects are living and have thoughts and feelings. Prevalent in the preoperational stage.

Question 55

Criticism of Piaget's Preoperational Theory

Answer 55

People believed Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of children at this age. The tests that he conducted may have had some cultural bias involved and caused false negatives. It is also possible for students to be led to answer incorrectly because of the weird stimuli and artificial nature of the tests.

Question 56

Storing of Vivid Information Easily

Answer 56

Flashbulb memories are ones that are so important to the child, they can remember the scene clearly. Areas of expertise are things a child is obsessed with, so they seek out more information on the subject.

Question 57

Use of Scripts with Memory

Answer 57

Children use scripts to store info in long-term memory. Scripts are schemas for routine events and interactions. They thrive under routines and typically remember more in their routine.

Question 58

Limitations to Children's Memory

Answer 58

Children are easily distracted, which makes them more forgetful. They also don’t make an effort to encode information and oftentimes have encoding failures.

Question 59

Errors in Child Testimony

Answer 59

Children are more susceptible to memory distortion than adults. They often follow the misinformation effect, which is when you disrupt memory due to influences, like a specific question, which in turn causes the children to change their memory to fit the question. They also have a strong desire for adult approval and fit their memory to what they know the adults would like.

Question 60

Attributes of Effective Preschools

Answer 60

Preschools should balance their attention between all three domains of development (physical, cognitive, and social). They should encourage active learning and exploration. Preschools should also minimize teaching academic content, because the purpose of the program is to prepare for school, not to be school.

Question 61

Short-Term Results of Head-Start Programs

Answer 61

Short-term effects include increased intellectual performance, physical health, family interactions, and social behavior.

Question 62

Long-Term Results of Head-Start Programs

Answer 62

Long-term effects include less likelihood of needing special education, less likelihood to be held back in school, fewer school absences, and more likely to graduate high school/college.

Question 63

Challenges that Head-Start Programs Face

Answer 63

These programs have to deal with government funding cuts and monetary decisions. There are also family troubles involved with students. Finding teachers can be challenging since the pay is so little, but the work can be hard and time-consuming.

Question 64

Measurement of Moral Judgement Maturity

Answer 64

Children at this age will make the distinction between right and wrong based on what they will or will not get in trouble for. This is analyzed by responses to sociomoral dilemmas, such as the Heinz Dilemma. This dilemma proposes an impossible question, regarding two immoral choices such as stealing or causing a loved one to die. The response of the child is what is analyzed, where people focus on WHY the child said what they did.

Question 65

Cross-cultural Differences in Parenting Style Effectiveness

Answer 65

The effectiveness of parenting styles can vary cross-culturally. For example, Asian and Black Americans have large success in authoritative parenting. Asian Americans have a collectivist culture in which they value respect for elders and strictness. Black Americans often must cope with their children’s behavior in this way. It all depends on how behaviors are perceived and if they are perceived as well-intentioned or problematic.

Question 66

Correlational Research of Parenting Styles

Answer 66

We should be careful when interpreting correlational relationships between parenting behavior and child behavior. This is because child behavior can determine the type of parenting style used as well.

Question 67

Birth Order

Answer 67

For a very large part, birth order does not cause any significant changes in behavior. The one and only thing it does is the oldest child is usually achievement-oriented, cooperative, and adult-oriented. All of this is just a prediction.

Question 68

Authoritarian Parenting and Results

Answer 68

These parents are demanding and unresponsive. They are strict and expect a lot, with not much in return. Children usually become passive and withdrawn or wild rule breakers. This could be because children will either submit to their parents and grow up submissive, or they will rebel and grow up rebellious.

Question 69

Permissive Parenting and Results

Answer 69

These parents are un-demanding and very responsive. They are usually pushovers with no rules. Children usually become attention-seeking and egotistic. This is because they were taught to be that way by their parents.

Question 70

Uninvolved Parenting and Results

Answer 70

These parents are unresponsive and undemanding. They are usually absent from a child’s life. Children usually become rebellious and wild, or timid and withdrawn. This could be because they have not had the guidance to keep them in check, and maybe could be due to the fact that they don’t have a support system at home and are timid around people because they never were guided through social skill development.

Question 71

Authoritative Parenting and Results

Answer 71

These parents are demanding and responsive. They are deemed the parent who does it all. They also practice inductive discipline, which is when rules are set and explained. Rules are then followed, and punishments are explained. Children usually are cooperative, and responsible, and have fewer behavior issues. This could be because they had good role models as parents and developed normally.

Question 72

Gender Differences in Play - Girls

Answer 72

Girls typically play in a make-believe type of fashion. Girls violate the gender stereotype norm more than boys do, most likely because it is seen as powerful to be manly. Girls play in smaller groups and are exclusive to only playing with other girls. This is because they see it as having power and control. Girls play with suggestive communication. Girls participate in rational aggression (the manipulation of social dynamics to hurt someone).

Question 73

Gender Differences in Play - Boys

Answer 73

Boys play in a rough-and-tumble fashion. Boys play in larger groups and invite both genders into their groups. Boys use more commands when playing. Boys are also seen as more aggressive players and participate in both verbal/overt and relational aggression.

Question 74

Gender Similarities in Play

Answer 74

They both choose toys that are associated with gender stereotypes. Additionally, they use the same types of conflict. They may have instrumental conflict, which is when it isn’t personal. They also may have hostile conflicts, which is when it is personal.

Question 75

Development of Social Play

Answer 75

Solitary: Children play on their own and don’t initiate interactions. This stage is prevalent during infancy. Onlooker: Children watch other kids play without joining in, which hints towards social interaction. This occurs around 3 years of age. Parallel: Children play near another kid and partake in the same activity without interacting. This is prevalent during early childhood. Associative: Children play alongside someone, interact with them, and do the same activity, but not with a shared goal. Cooperative: Children are fully immersed in play with each other and have the same goal.

Question 76

Brain Development in Middle Childhood

Answer 76

There is continued myelination and pruning, especially in the frontal lobe. In addition, there is increased hemispheric lateralization.

Question 77

Differences in Gender Body Types in Middle Childhood

Answer 77

At this age, boys and girls have almost identical body types, which become longer and fuller. If there are individual differences, they become more obvious.

Question 78

Pattern of Body Growth in Middle Childhood

Answer 78

Motor skill growth slows down as children become accustomed to their new body proportions. There are some small gender differences in preparation for adolescence, where boys develop an upper body and girls develop hip flexibility. We also see body insecurity beginning in girls at this age.

Question 79

Growing Pains in Middle Childhood

Answer 79

This is a phenomenon where children experience an aching sensation in their legs with no apparent cause. This is normal and not concerning, and the symptoms are the things that are treated.

Question 80

Fitness and Nutrition Recommendations in Middle Childhood

Answer 80

It is recommended for children to get at least 60 minutes of moderate to intense exercise per day. Their nutritional needs follow the food pyramid, and the types of food they are eating are more important than their calorie intake.

Question 81

Challenges to Fitness and Nutrition in Middle Childhood

Answer 81

This can be challenging to reach because junk and fast food are advertised greatly in our world today. Some families don’t have enough time to cook, so they always eat out. Exercise is tricky because kids sit all day at school, then sit to do homework, and usually by that time, need to get to bed.

Question 82

Risks of Obesity in Middle Childhood

Answer 82

Risks include social discrimination, heart and respiratory disease, type 2 diabetes, and joint problems.

Question 83

Individual/Group Differences in Childhood Obesity

Answer 83

Exercise and sports participation: This can be due to a family having little money, little time, or no means of transportation. Sedentary habits: this could be due to the curriculum at school or possibly the neighborhood that a child lives in. Food preparation and availability: Families on a budget may buy the cheapest option, which often is the unhealthiest option. Socioeconomic status: This affects the type of house, neighborhood, food, and everything else that we talked about previously.

Question 84

Reversibility in Concrete Operational Stage

Answer 84

Understanding that certain actions can be reversible.

Question 85

Decentration in Concrete Operational Stage

Answer 85

Conservation: Children now can understand that things may take a different form but are ultimately still the same. Physical perspective-taking: The answers and process of arriving at a conclusion after being able to take the perspective on someone else changes, and children now can do this. Children with different educational backgrounds may still continue to fail at this until they receive a specific curriculum during or after middle childhood.

Question 86

Importance of Concrete and Familarv Activities in the Concrete Operational Stage

Answer 86

The logic of children is still tied to their concrete and familiar situations, which is known as kid logic. They tend to make conclusions based on what they know, for example, that since an airplane gets smaller in the sky, so do the people in it.

Question 87

Features of Social Perspective-Taking

Answer 87

The ability to view self from another person’s perspective. Understanding that others can also take a second-person perspective of themselves. The ability to coordinate different perspectives. The ability to understand that there is not always one correct perspective. These are all gained in the concrete operational stage.

Question 88

Importance of Active and Constructivist Approaches to Learning

Answer 88

These approaches are when a child constructs their own learning. It helps a child remember things better because it is hands-on.

Question 89

Cooperative Learning

Answer 89

Cooperative learning is when children work together to practice and learn material. Each child provides scaffolding to each other.

Question 90

Discovery Learning

Answer 90

Discovery learning is when a child discovers a concept for themselves during an activity.

Question 91

Generative Learning

Answer 91

Generative learning is after learning a concept, an assignment is given that helps students generate new ideas/skills.

Question 92

The Phonics Approach of Teaching Reading

Answer 92

The phonics approach is when children are taught the sounds that phonemes make and have them sound out words using those sounds. Some advantages include being supported by science, the analytical, bottom-up approach fits the cognitive learning style of the children, and children can match the words they know by sound to the paper version. Some disadvantages include the fact that some letter sounds are not consistent and that the instructional materials can be boring, which then will teach children that reading is boring.

Question 93

The Whole Language Approach to Teaching Reading

Answer 93

The whole language approach is when you use context clues to guess what the words say. Some advantages include more engaging reading materials, students may begin to read earlier, and it may be more inclusive to neurodivergent students. Some disadvantages include the fact that it is not well supported by science, it can be overwhelming because it is a top-bottom way of learning, and it results in lower reading scores on standardized tests.

Question 94

Scoring of the WISC Test

Answer 94

It is scored using a standardized system, which means that the median score will be the most achieved score (100). It is usually an online test, so it is scored by a point system.

Question 95

Types of Items on the WISC

Answer 95

Some things that are tested include analytical, practical, verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. It does not test creativity, empathy, or music.

Question 96

Predictive Validity of the WISC Test

Answer 96

The only predictive power that these tests have is the prediction of how well students will do in school. It tells educators who will need extra support. The scores are unstable before elementary school but stabilize after. It accounts for 36% of the variation in academics.

Question 97

Influence of Environment and Experience on IQ

Answer 97

A student’s environment can positively or negatively impact scores. Demographic or direct events can potentially shut students out of opportunities to be in gifted programs that offer extra things. If a student has more than six risk factors, they seem to rebound in IQ scores.

Question 98

Tourette's Syndrome

Answer 98

Children will experience verbal and/or physical tics. It is more common in males than in females. Tics don’t emerge until middle childhood. The frequency and severity of the tics tend to decrease with age. Some people with Tourette’s can have OCD or ADHD. One way to support these children is to provide them with outlets involving things they enjoy. This may provide them with a space to flow and relax. They can also take medication that might help a little bit. It is also an option for the students to go to therapy.

Question 99

Dyslexia

Answer 99

A neurologically based and genetic learning disability manifested as severe difficulties in reading, spelling, and writing. Presented by moving or distorted letters, but other experiences vary between people. background noise may be ra because it requires 5 times more attention to focus. Coping strategies include a quiet environment, extra time, and printed materials in an alternate form.

Question 100

Autism

Answer 100

The autism spectrum is meant to reflect that patterns of behaviors may differ, not the severity of autism. The amygdala, which processes emotions, is larger by 13% in autistic people. There is sometimes an IQ difference. Symptoms show by the end of infancy and severity is ranked by 3 levels. 1/150 children have autism, and it is more likely in males than females (girls have more self-regulation skills). Support depends on each case, but may include alternate communication methods, art therapy, therapy animals, and occupational therapy.