Midterm Review Flashcards
(42 cards)
Taharqa
Taharqa was a pharaoh of the 25th dynasty who ruled over Egypt from 690 to 664 BC as the king of the Kushites who conquered Egypt. Taharqa’s reign was a time of cultural revival in Egypt, with a renewed focus on religion, arts, and architecture in combination with Kush culture.
Quran
The Quran is the book of Islam, containing Holy Scripts. It is believed by Muslims to be speech derived from God himself. The Quran marked the beginning of Islam in Africa as it was revealed to the prophet Muhammad in a vision telling him to read.
“Gift of the Nile”
A term referring to Ancient Egypt as they depended on the Nile River for water and fertile soil, and was a basis for trade. This term was given by Herodotus, a Greek scholar who was known as the “father of history” because the Nile was crucial to the development of Egyptian civilization. The Nile provided water to be able to cultivate crops for trade.
25th Dynasty
The 25th dynasty was a time of Nubian domination of Egypt where Nubian kings ruled Egypt, located in present-day Sudan. Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt were reunited during this dynasty, resulting in one of the largest Egyptian empires. This was also a time of the revival of ancient Egyptian culture and traditions while also incorporating Nubian culture.
Narmer/Menes
Narmer was a Pharaoh from Upper Egypt and was the ruler of Egypt during the Dynasty era in 3000 BCE. He united two kingdoms, upper and lower Egypt, being the first king of unified Egypt. He also founded the first dynasty and founded the city of Memphis.
Bantu
An Indigenous group of people in Africa who speak Bantu languages and originated in West Africa. The Bantu is significant and has created many traditions of Ancient Africa, including female circumcision, age sets, and the economic advantage of having a large family. The Bantu migration allowed the spreading of their language, religion (Christianity), and culture throughout sub-Saharan Africa.
622 BC
During this time, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina, where it became known as the land of Muslims, with Muhammid as their ruler. The name of the migration is Hijra, which established the first Islamic community. This time also marked the beginning of Islamic jurisprudence, focusing on the Quran and Sunna.
Geez
Geʽez is an ancient South Semitic language that originates from present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. It was also the official language of the Kingdom of Axum. The invention of the geez alphabet increased the Aksumite literacy levels, therefore influencing the development of religious and philosophical writings.
Griot
A griot is a West African storyteller, historian, musician, and poet who preserves their people’s oral traditions, and they usually carry a kora, a 21-string harp-lute. Griots are cultural guardians who keep records of births, deaths, and marriages and pass down their people’s history through song and story. Griots remain important in places where written language is limited. They also serve as advisers and diplomats. One of the most celebrated epics told by griots is about Sundiata, the founder of the Mali Empire.
Kiswahili
Kiswahili is the main language of Swahili, the coastal people of African, Arab, and Persian ancestry. The significance of the Kiswahili language is that it shows that the people of the region had significant contact and trade with peoples as far as Persia (Iran) and demonstrates how interconnected the region was with global trade.
Polygenesis theory
Polygenesis theory is a theory that human races have multiple origins. This theory was used to support white supremacist ideas and practices and is considered to be unscientific. People who believe in this theory refuse to accept that humanity originated in Africa.
Dhimmy
Dhimmi refers to a non-Muslim subject of the Ottoman Empire. It is derived from Islamic legal conceptions of membership to society, non-Muslims ‘dhimmis’ were afforded protection by the state and did not serve in the military in return for specific taxes. Its significance is that non-Muslim subjects faced various forms of institutional discrimination and it was a common form of tolerance in Islamic civilization.
Sankore
The Sankore is a mosque whose main significance is being a place of learning and worship. It is located in Timbuktu and holds the status of a full-fledged Islamic university. The Sankore’s significance is that it allowed for the production and diffusion of Islamic knowledge. It was also sat the powerful class of Muslim clerics: religious leaders who serve as teachers, judges, and community leaders.
Aryan Model
This model was created in the work of Black Athena, and it is the theory that ancient African civilizations, particularly Egypt, were influenced by Indo-Europeans, “Aryans” migrating from the north. The author of Black Athena, Bernal, argues against the Aryan model and claims that Greek civilization was heavily influenced by Egypt and other African cultures, not just Aryans.
Sanders Reading
The Hamitic Hypothesis is a racial theory that suggested African civilization and advanced cultures in sub-Saharan Africa were primarily the result of influence or migration by “Hamitic” peoples. This hypothesis, rooted in European racial theories from the 18th and 19th centuries, held that Hamites, often vaguely defined as Caucasoid or with supposed Middle Eastern or North African origins, brought advanced skills and culture to “primitive” African groups, especially in East Africa. This concept reinforced the idea that any technological or societal development in Africa came from external sources.
Sanders traces the origins of this hypothesis back to biblical and classical sources, where the “Ham” lineage was mythologically linked to Africa, and the narrative was manipulated over time to fit colonial ideologies. In the 19th century, European scholars expanded this idea into a pseudo-scientific framework that supported colonial domination, painting Africans as inferior and dependent on external influences for advancement. Sanders critiques this narrative, emphasizing how it delegitimized African agency and perpetuated stereotypes that justified European exploitation.
Ogot Reading
Examines the impact of colonialism on African knowledge systems, cultural identity, and historical narratives. Ogot argues that colonial powers imposed a framework of “epistemic domination” over Africa, which systematically devalued African knowledge, philosophies, and historical contributions. This imposition forced African societies into a foreign epistemic system, marginalizing indigenous ways of knowing and understanding.
Ogot also explores African resistance to this domination, emphasizing that Africans actively preserved their traditions, languages, and cultural identities despite colonial pressures. African intellectuals, especially in the post-independence period, have worked to reclaim and reframe African historiography, challenging Eurocentric perspectives and asserting the validity and richness of African epistemologies.
The work encourages a critical approach to history, urging scholars to recognize and dismantle colonial biases within historical narratives and advocating for a decolonized African historiography that empowers African perspectives and experiences. Ogot’s analysis highlights the ongoing struggle against epistemic domination and celebrates the resilience of African intellectual traditions in the face of historical oppression.
Zeleza Reading
critiques the marginalization of African history within global historiography and calls for a more inclusive, globalized perspective that fully integrates African narratives. Zeleza argues that Africa’s history has often been “silenced” or minimized within academic discourse, with Africa typically portrayed as a passive recipient rather than an active contributor to global history. This marginalization results from colonial biases, Eurocentrism, and the influence of Western-dominated scholarship.
Zeleza advocates for a transformative approach to African historiography that emphasizes Africa’s dynamic interactions with other regions and its influence on world events. By highlighting Africa’s contributions to fields such as science, technology, economics, and culture, Zeleza challenges the notion that African history is peripheral and insists on its centrality in understanding global history.
He calls on African historians to engage in “global history” that reclaims and amplifies African voices, narratives, and perspectives, dismantling the lingering effects of colonialism in academia. Through this re-globalization of African history, Zeleza envisions a more balanced, inclusive historical narrative that not only “banishes the silences” but also enriches the understanding of world history as a whole.
Ehret Book
The book traces the development of various African civilizations from early human origins through significant cultural, technological, and political milestones. Ehret emphasizes the interconnectedness of African societies, showing how trade, migration, and cultural exchange shaped a dynamic and evolving continent. His approach underscores Africa’s role in human history, including its advancements in agriculture, metallurgy, trade networks, and governance, often predating similar developments in other parts of the world.
Ehret’s work aims to dispel myths of African “primitivism” by presenting a well-documented narrative of African agency, ingenuity, and adaptability. By doing so, he reclaims Africa’s rightful place within the global historical narrative and encourages a deeper understanding of the continent’s contributions to civilization.
Khapoya Reading
traces Africa’s journey from ancient civilizations through the era of European colonization and into the challenges and achievements of the post-independence period. He examines critical aspects of African societies, including social structures, traditional beliefs, colonial impacts, and the struggles for independence.
Khapoya delves into the legacies of colonialism, detailing how colonial policies disrupted African economies, cultures, and political systems. He also discusses how Africans have navigated post-colonial challenges such as economic dependency, political instability, and the struggle to maintain cultural identity amid globalization. A key theme in the book is African resilience and the ways in which Africans have reasserted their identity, striving for economic growth, political stability, and cultural revitalization.
Khapoya’s work is both a historical and sociopolitical exploration, emphasizing African agency and the continent’s potential for transformation. Through this lens, he presents Africa not as a “problem” to be solved but as a continent rich in history and potential, shaped by its own narratives and capable of navigating its future.
Diop Reading
Argues for Africa as the cradle of civilization, challenging Eurocentric views that exclude Africa from early cultural and intellectual achievements. Diop asserts that ancient Egypt, as an African civilization, played a foundational role in the development of global civilization, influencing later societies in Greece and Rome. He meticulously presents linguistic, cultural, anthropological, and historical evidence to support his thesis that Egypt’s achievements are part of Africa’s legacy.
Diop’s work reclaims Egypt’s African identity, challenging narratives that isolate it from the rest of Africa by portraying it as more Mediterranean or Middle Eastern in nature. He examines the cultural and racial aspects of ancient Egyptians, arguing that they shared ethnic and cultural links with other African societies. Diop also critiques the historical erasure of Africa’s contributions to knowledge, science, philosophy, and governance, positing that this omission stems from colonial and racist ideologies.
Through his analysis, Diop advocates for the recognition of Africa’s role in the foundations of human civilization and knowledge. His work emphasizes the importance of African-centered historiography, inspiring a reevaluation of African heritage and urging a reconnection with Africa’s ancient intellectual and cultural contributions.
Burstein Reading
examines the civilization of Kush, located along the Nile south of Egypt, and details its periods of political strength, including the era when the Kushites ruled as Egypt’s 25th Dynasty. Kush developed a unique culture, distinct yet influenced by Egypt, with achievements in architecture, writing, and ironworking.
Burstein also covers Axum, a kingdom in present-day Ethiopia, which emerged as a powerful state due to its control of trade routes connecting Africa with the Roman Empire, Arabia, and India. Axum became one of the world’s early Christian states and was notable for its monumental architecture, including the famous obelisks and rock-hewn churches. Axum’s economy, based on trade and agriculture, helped it become a major player in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean trade networks.
The book highlights how both civilizations were centers of innovation, culture, and religion, contributing to African and world history. Burstein’s work dispels misconceptions of African history as isolated or underdeveloped, portraying Kush and Axum as influential players with sophisticated societies, distinct cultures, and lasting legacies.
Black Athena by Bernal Reading
challenges traditional views of Western civilization’s origins by arguing that ancient Greek culture was significantly influenced by African (particularly Egyptian) and Near Eastern civilizations. Bernal critiques the dominant narrative that sees Greek civilization as largely independent or solely Indo-European, tracing its roots to internal Greek developments. Instead, he presents evidence that Greek culture, philosophy, and religion were profoundly shaped by interactions with Egypt and the Levant.
Bernal outlines how historical interpretations of ancient Greece shifted in the 18th and 19th centuries with the rise of Eurocentric ideologies and racial theories that downplayed or denied African and Near Eastern influences. He refers to this shift as the “Aryan Model,” which replaced what he calls the earlier “Ancient Model,” where Greek writers acknowledged foreign influences, especially from Egypt.
Key points of Black Athena include:
Cultural Influence: Bernal argues that the Greeks adopted numerous elements of Egyptian and Semitic language, mythology, religion, and knowledge, integrating these into their own society.
Eurocentrism and Historiography: He critiques how Western historiography minimized African contributions to classical civilization, partly due to racial prejudices and colonialism.
Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence: Bernal draws on linguistic and archaeological evidence to support his claims of significant Afroasiatic influence on Greece, challenging traditional Indo-European models.
Historiographical Revisionism: He calls for a reevaluation of classical studies to acknowledge the multicultural roots of Greek civilization.
Bernal’s work sparked significant debate, with supporters viewing it as a necessary corrective to Eurocentric history and critics questioning his methodology and conclusions.
Ray Reading
Religious Symbols and Cosmology: Ray discusses how African religions are rich in symbols and myths that represent complex cosmologies, including beliefs in a supreme creator, ancestors, spirits, and the interconnectedness of all life. These symbols convey religious values and are essential to understanding the universe and human purpose within it.
Role of Rituals: Rituals are central to African religions, serving as a means of connecting with the divine, honoring ancestors, and maintaining social order. Ray examines various ceremonies such as rites of passage, initiations, and communal festivals, showing how these rituals reinforce community ties and transmit cultural values.
Community and Identity: African religions are inherently communal, emphasizing collective identity and social harmony over individualism. Religious practices are closely linked with community structures, and spiritual leaders, elders, and ancestors play vital roles in guiding ethical conduct and resolving conflicts.
Spiritual Power and Healing: Ray explores the concept of spiritual power (often termed mana or ashe), which is seen as a vital force in African religious thought. This power is harnessed in healing practices and rituals to address both physical and spiritual ailments, reflecting a holistic approach to well-being.
Adaptation and Continuity: Ray addresses how African religions have adapted to changes over time, including the influences of Islam, Christianity, and modernity. Despite these influences, core aspects of African spirituality have persisted and continue to shape identity and cultural resilience.
Through these themes, Ray argues that African religions are dynamic, multifaceted systems that contribute significantly to the cohesion and continuity of African societies.
Ngong Reading
Historical Development: Ngong traces the introduction and spread of Christianity in Africa, beginning with early influences from North Africa and later waves during European colonialism. He explores the role of missionaries, colonial powers, and African converts in shaping Christianity’s early presence on the continent.
Indigenization and Syncretism: Ngong emphasizes how African societies adapted Christianity, integrating it with indigenous beliefs and practices to create a form of Christianity that resonated with local cultural values and worldviews. This adaptation resulted in a blend of traditional African religious elements, such as reverence for ancestors and communal practices, with Christian doctrine.
African Independent Churches (AICs): A significant portion of Ngong’s work focuses on the rise of African Independent Churches, which emerged as African-led, distinct forms of Christianity that broke away from missionary churches. These churches emphasize African identity, spirituality, and autonomy, often incorporating healing practices, prophetic messages, and vibrant worship.
Social and Political Influence: Ngong examines how Christianity in Africa has played a dual role as both a tool of colonial oppression and a force for liberation and social justice. In contemporary Africa, Christian leaders and organizations often engage in social issues, such as poverty, health, and education, and play an active role in politics and community development.
Christianity in the African Diaspora: Ngong addresses how African spirituality continues to shape Christianity within African diasporic communities, highlighting how the African experience of faith influences Black churches in the Americas and Europe.
Ngong’s work portrays Christianity in Africa as a dynamic and evolving faith that reflects the resilience and adaptability of African culture. He argues that African interpretations of Christianity have created a powerful and distinct expression of the religion that is both deeply rooted in African heritage and responsive to contemporary challenges.
