MIDTERM REVIEW Flashcards
(19 cards)
Pre-Colonialization
The era in the Americas before the European exploration and settlement
Regional Cultures- there were different groups of people in the americas before we came and they had adapted their own ways of life depending on the region they were in
Trade and Technology- Native Societies had extensive trade Networks, connecting distant regions and had tools made from stone, wood, and bone (adapted to local resources)
Religion and Society- They had their own beliefs and their own worships along with their own ways of social structures of how things were run
The arrival of Europeans initiated a transformation of their societies
3 Colonial Areas - Comparison
The 3 colonial regions of British North America were New England, Middle Colonies, and Southern Colonies
New England Colonies
-Colonies- Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire
-Economy- Small-scale farming, fishing, shipbuilding and trade. Lacked large-scale plantations; focused on subsistence farming (most crops/livestock are used by farmer and family, little left for sale or trade. Thrived on commerce and triangular trade. Family labor
-Society- Dominated by Puritan religious values, leading to close-knit communities. Town meetings were a central part of governance. High literacy rates bc of the Bible readings and establishment of schools (like Harvard in 1636)
-Politics- Town meetings encouraged participatory government (early form of democracy). Focused on self-governance w/in framework of religious leadership
Middle Colonies
-Colonies- New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware
-Economy- “Breadbasket” produced grain and other food crops. Supported by farming, lumber, shipbuilding, and trade. Had fertile soil and moderate climate which was good for mixed farming and urban commerce
-Society- Most ethnically and religiously diverse (English, Dutch, German, Swedish; Quakers, Catholics, Jews). Philadelphia and New York became important trade hubs. Greater tolerance and cultural differences compared to the other colonies. Mix of free, indentured servants and enslaved for labor
- Politics- Town meetings and county governments, reflecting a balance of urban and rural influence. Early commitment to religious and political freedom
Southern Colonies
-Colonies- Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia
-Economy- plantation agriculture (tobacco, rice, indigo, later cotton). Relied heavily on enslaved labor and indentured servants. Wealth concentrated among lard landowners; limited urban development
-Society- highly stratified w/ rigid class system: plantation elites (top), small framers, indentured servants, enslaved Africans. Anglican Dominance, but more religiously compromised than New England. Rural, spread-out settlement created difficulties for community and education development
-Politics- Dominated by wealthy plantation owners who controlled colonial legislatures (Virginia House of Burgesses 1619). Less democratic than other colonies, power concentrating on elites
Issues with labor (3 colonies)
New England
-Labor System- Family Labor on small farms and artisanal trades. Some indentured servants but declined over time
-Issues- short growing season (limited agricultural productivity so no large-scale labor, farmers relied on family labor instead of enslaved), Lack of enslaved labor (small scale economy and puritans discouraged widespread slavery), Crafts and Artisanship (skilled labor shortages in industries lead to dependence on apprenticeships and imported artisans)
Middle Colonies
-Labor System- Mix of free labor, indentured servants, and enslaved workers (tenant farming and sharecropping were also common)
-Issues- Shortage of Indentured Servants (didn’t rely on them as much bc opportunities in other colonies or Europe improved and left once freed for better opportunities), Rise in Urbanization (Cities like NY and Philadelphia needed a stable labor force which lead to people wanting to work there bc of opportunities for unskilled workers), Conflict Over Land, (tenant farmers and wealthy landowners fought over rent and right), Limited Slavery (was present in larger estates but not as needed and there were some abolitionist sediments)
Southern Colonies
-Labor System- Enslaved African Labor, initially relied on indentured servants but transitioned to slavery in 17 century, some family labor
-Issues- Indentured Servitude (Early they relied on them from Europe but collapsed after events like Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676), Enslaved Labor (expansion of plantation economy led to more enslaved labor but also created resistance, harsh slave codes led to dehumanization and systemic oppression), Classic Tension (non- elites resented wealthy plantation owners who controlled political and economic systems, smaller farmers struggled to compete w/ plantations), Labor Shortages (landholdings needed more labor than free or indentured workers pushing for more slavery)
Effects on Natives
Demographic Collapse
Disease- Europeans brought diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza which Native Americans had not immunity to. Epidemics wiped out entire communities
War and Violence- European colonists engaged in conflicts w/ Native groups like massacres and wars (Pequot War, 1637). Native populations were further reduced by enslavement and forced labor under systems like the Spanish Ecomienda
Land Loss and Displacement
Encroachment- European settlers claimed they needed land for agriculture which pushed Native groups off their territories. Treaties (often deceptive or unfair) and force were used to dispossess Native peoples
Relocation- Displacement disrupted Native societies, forcing migrations into unfamiliar and often less fertile regions
Economic Disruption
Shift to European Trade- Native economies became dependent on European goods like metal tools and firearms and alcohol. Fur trade led to overhunting and ecological imbalances. Bartering systems were replaced by European-style trade, often to the detriment of Native economies
Labor Exploitation- religions like Spanish America, Native people were subjected to forced labor systems which contributed to population decline and disrupted traditional ways of life
Cultural Disruption
Religious Conversion- Missionary efforts mainly by the Spanish and French aimed to convert Native Populations to Christianity. Indigenous spiritual practices were often suppressed of blended w/ European religions
Loss of Autonomy- colonization disrupted traditional governance structures bc European powers sought to control Native groups through alliances and warfare
Cultural Exchange and Assimilation- while some Native Groups adopted European technologies and practices, they often lost significant aspects of their own cultural heritage
Political and Social Effects
Conflict and Alliances- European powers (British, French, Spanish) exploited divisions among Native groups, forming alliances that intensified intertribal warfare
Division Among Tribes- some tribes allies w/ Europeans for protection or trade advantages, while others resisted colonization, leading to fragmented resistance efforts
Resistance and Adaption
Armed Resistance- Native groups resisted colonization through warfare (King Philips War and Pueblo Revolt). These efforts were often crushed, further weakening Native societies
Adaption- some tribes adopted European technologies, governance styles, or economic practices to navigate colonial pressures
French and Indian War (7 years war)
Colonial Rivalry- Britain and Fence were competing for dominance in North America (Ohio River Valley, rich in resources and strategically vital for trade and settlement). Both nations wanted to expand their colonial emires often arguing over territorial claims
Economic Interests- Fur Trade was the main reason for the region and French traders allied with Indigenous groups, wanted to maintain their dominance, while British colonists aimed to expand their trade networks. Control of fertile land for farming and settlement also motivated British colonial ambitions
Indigenous Alliances and Sovereignty- Indigenous groups placed a central role in the conflict, aligning with either French or British based on their interests and survival strategies. The war was also a stuggle for indigenous nations to assert their sovereignty surrounding European intrusions on their territory
European Power struggles- The war was part of a larger global contest for power b/n Britain and France, which included conflicts in Europe and Caribbean and Asia. Control of North America was seen as crucial for securing overall dominance
Colonial Expansion and Settlement Pressure- British colonists were rapidly expanding westward, increasing tension w/ both the French and indigenous groups. French defensive wall in contested areas were seen as a threat to British colonial ambitions
Religious and Cultural Competition- Conflict also reflected a broader stuggle b/n Protestant British and Catholic French societies, which wanted to spread their respective religions and cultures
Consequences- war ended with Treaty of Paris in 1763, diminished French territorial claims in North America. The war set a stage for future conflicts like the American Revolution, bc British colonists bear mad w/ postwar policies and taxes imposted by Britain
Proclamation of 1763 through Declaration of Independence
Proclamation of 1763- issued by King George 3 after the French and Indian War, forbidding colonial settlement west of Appalachian Mountains to keep peace b/n colonists and Native groups
-Colonials Reaction- colonists were angered bc they viewed the western lands as their reward for contributing to the war efforts. This fueled resentment against British authority
Sugar Act (1764) and Currency Act (1764)
Sugar Act- imposed taxes on sugar and molasses to raise revenue for Britain and aimed to stop smuggling
-Currency Act- restricted colonies from printing their own paper money, creating economic hardships
-Colonial Reaction- these acts sparked protests as colonists began questioning British authority over their economic affairs
Stamp Act (1765)
Required colonists to purchase stamped paper for legal documents, newspapers, and other goods
-Colonial Reactions- widespread protests erupted, like formation of the Sons of Liberty. “No taxation w/out representation” this united colonies against unfair texation
Declaratory Act (1766)
Passed after the repeal of the Stamp Act, this act asserted Parliament’s right to legislate for the colonies
-Colonial Reaction- while colonists were celebrating the repeal of the stamp act, the Declaratory Act reaffirmed Britain’s intent to maintain control, deepening distrust
Townshend Act (1767)
Imposed duties on imported goods like glass, paper and tea
-CR- boycotts British goods and groups emerged to support movement. British troops were sent to enforce order, heightened tensions
Boston Massacre (1770)
A confrontation b/n British soldiers and colonists in Boston led to the killing of 5 colonists
Impact- used as propaganda by colonial leaders to make more popular Anit-British sentiment
Tea Act (1773) and Boston Tea Party
Tea Act- allowed the British East India Company to sell tea directly to the colonies at reduced prices undercutting local merchants
-Boston Tea Party- In protest, colonist dumped British tea into Boston Harbor
-Impact- Britain responded w/ the Coercive Acts which escalated conflict
Intolerable Acts (1774)
Punitive measures like closing Boston Harbor and revoking Massachusetts charter
-CR- untied colonies against Britain, leading to the formation of the First continental Congress
FCC (1774)
Delegates from 12 colonies met to organize resistance, including boycotts and the preparation of militias
-Outcome- drafted declaration of rights and grievances, demanding repeal of oppressive laws
Battle of Lexington and Concord (1775)
First military engagements of the American Revolution, as British troops attempted to seize colonial arms
-Impact- marked the transition from political resistance to armed conflict
Second Continental Congress (1775-1776)
Established the Continental Army, led by George Washington. Sent the Olive Branch Petition to king George 3, seeking reconciliation but it was rejected. Began steps toward independence
Common Sense (1776)
-Impact- argued for complete independence from Britain, swaying public opinion and relying support for revolution
Decalaration of Independence (July 4, 1776)
Written by Thomas Jefferson, it declared the colonies independence from Britain, outlining grievances and asserting natural rights
-Impact- marked the official start of the US as an independent nation
Revolutionary War (1775-1783)
Causes of the War
Taxation W/out representation, Boston Tea Party, Coercive Acts, Enlightenment Ideas (John Locke)
Key Events
Battles of Lexington and Concord (1775)- marked start of the war as British troops clashed w/ colonial militias
Declaration of Independence- announced the colonies break from Britain
Battle of Saratoga (1777)- Turning point, leading to French military support for the American cause
Winter At Vally Froge (1777-1778)= showed resilience of the continental Army under George Washington
Battle of Yorktown- Culminated in British General Conwallis’s surrender, effectively ending the war
Outcome
Treaty of Paris (1783)- officially ended the war, recognizing American independence and granting the new nation significant territory
Articles of Confederation
Served as the first constitution of the US and adopted during Revolutionary War
Structure of Gov- created a weak central government with/ a single legislative body, congress of confederation. No executive branch or national judiciary. Each state had one vote in Congress, regardless of pop or size
Powers of Congress- could declare war, negotiate treaties, and manage relations w/ Native American Tribes. Could request funds and troops from states but lacked power to force it. No power to levy taxes or regulate commerce
State Sovereignty- emphasized the independence and sovereignty of individual states. States retained all powers not explicitly granted to Congress
Amendments- required unanimous approval of all 13 states, making it very difficult to adapt or change the Aritcles
Weaknesses
No Power to Tax- congress had to rely on states for funding, which was often inconsistent or insufficient
No control over trade- states could impose thier own tariffs and trade restrictions, led to economic disputes
Weak central gov- inability to enforce laws or maintain a standing army
Difficult decision making- major decisions required 9 of the 13 states, and amendments needed all
Ultimately it failed
Constitutional Convention (Philadelphia Convention in 1787)
Purpose was to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, but instead of merely revising the Articles, the delegates decided to create a new framework for gov in drafting the US Constitution
James Madison- “Father of the Constitution” bc he drafted and promoted the doc
Major Outcomes
Bicameral Legislature- The Great Compromise made 2 legislative chambers- House of Representatives (which was based on pop) and the Senate (equal representation for each state)
3/5 Compromise- determined that slaves would count as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation
Separation of Powers- divided gov into 3 branches with system of checks and balances
Federalism- defined the division of powers b/n federal and state gov
Setting Precedent in the New Government
After the Revolutionary war the leaders of the New US had to establish precedents for their government. They were going to lay the foundation for how the federal gov would function and how leaders would interact with the people and states.
Establishment of the Presidency- George Washington set many crucial presidents. He demonstrated the importance of restraint in executive power, by not serving a 3rd term (became the 22 amendment). He also made the presidential cabinet to advise the executive
Separation of Powers- The framers of the Constitution implemented a gov with 3 branches with distinct roles and responsibilities. This division emphasized checks and balances to prevent any branch from becoming too powerful
Judicial Authority- the Judiciary Act of 1789 established the federal court system and the Supreme Court asserted its authority to review laws’ constitutionality in Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Fiscal Policies- treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton set financial precedents through his economic plans like federal assumption of state debts, the creation of a national band and establishing credit. Laid groundwork for a strong central economic policy
Neutrality in Foreign Affairs- Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation of 1793 established a precedent of avoiding entangled alliances, a policy that influenced US foreign relations
Bill of Rights- Ratified in 1791, first ten amendments to the Constitution were a response to demands for greater protection of individual liberties, setting a precedent for balancing gov authority with citizens rights
Growing Presidential Power - Washington through Jackson
George Washington
-Establishment of Presidential authority- laid groundwork for Presidency, demonstrated restraint and executive norms. Made the cabinet
-Neutrality Proclamation
-Suppression of Whiskey Rebellion (1794)- Washington used federal troops to calm domestic unrest, showing the federal government’s power to enforce laws
John Adams (1797-1801)
-Alien and Sedation Acts (1798)- Adams expanded executive authority by signing laws that limited free speech and increased presidential power in national security matters
-Quasi-War w/ France- Adams increased naval forces w/out a formal declaration of war, emphasizing the president’s role as commander-in-chief
Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)
-Louisiana Purchase (1803)- Jefferson used executive authority to negotiate the purchase of vast western territories from France, despite concerns over constitutional limits
-Embargo Act (1807)- Implemented trade restrictions, showing the presidents power to shape economic policy, though the act was resisted by many
James Madison (1809-1817)
-War of 1812- Madison became the first president to ask Congress for a declaration of war, reinforcing the president’s role as a wartime leader
-Increased Military Powers- Madison’s leadership during the war demonstrated the growing resistance on the executive in national defense
James Monroe (1817-1825)
-Monroe Doctrine (1823)- Written by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, Monroe Doctrine marked an assertion of executive authority in forgiven policy, declaring the Western Hemisphere off-limits to European colonization
John Quincy Adams (1825-1829)
Didn’t expand executive power bc of opposition from Congress and instead showed presidents limitations when faces w/ political resistance
Andrew Jackson (1829-1837)
-Expansion of Presidential Power- Jackson vetoed more bills than all previous presidents combined, using the veto as a policy tool rather than just for constitutional objections. His stance against the Second Bank of the US demonstrated his willingness to challenge established institutions
-Nullification Crisis (1832-1833)- Jackson used executive authority to enforce federal tariffs and issued the Force Bill, asserting federal supremacy over states
-Indian Removal Act (1830)- Used executive power to enforce policies leading to the forced removal of Native Americans, showing growing federal gov
-“Kitchen Cabinet”- Relied on an informal group of advisors, bypassing traditional cabinet structures to consolidate decision-making power
1st Industrial Revolution (1760-1840)
Marked Period of profound economic, social and technological transformation. It changed how goods were produced, leading to shifts in labor, urbanization, and economic systems
Technological Innovations
-Textile Industry- Spinning Jenny, Water Frame (spinning using water power), Power Loom (Weaving, to increase productivity)
-Steam Power- Steam Engine
-Iron and Steel Productions
-Transportation- Canals and Roads, Railroads
-Mechanized Agriculture
Economic Changes
-Factory Systems- shifted from small-scale, home based workshops to centralized factories, leading to mass production. Factories increased productivity but also introduced rigid work schedules and labor specialization
-Capitalism and Industrial Capital- Industrial capitalism saw investments in c=machinery, factories, and transportation, creating new wealth but class disparities
-Urbanization- Industrial cities grew rapidly as people moved from rural areas to work in factories
-Global Trade- demand for raw materials (cotton, coal, and iron) and markets for finished goods expanded global trade networks, deepening connections b/n Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia
Social Impacts
-Labor and Working Conditions- Factory work often involved long hours, low wages, and unsafe conditions, including child and women labor. Rise of labor movements sought to address these issues
-Class Structure- Industrial middle glass emerged as factory owners and entrepreneurs. Working class grew, w/ many experiencing harsh living and working conditions
-Population Growth- advances in agriculture and industrial production contributed to pop growth and urbanization
-Education and Innovation- Need for skilled workers and engineers promoted education in science, tech, and math
Age of Reform (1820-1850)
Period in history characterized by a series of cocial, political, and cultural movements aimed at improving society (to reach societal “perfection”) and was heavily influenced by the Second Great Awakening and Enlightenment Ideas
Temperance Movement
-Goal- to reduce or eliminate alcohol consumption, which was seen as a cause of societal issues like domestic abuse, crime, and poverty (think pyramid)
-Achievements- decline in alcohol consumption during the 1830s. Paved war for prohibition in early 20th century
Abolitionism
-Goal- End slavery in the US
-Achievements- increased public awareness about horrors of slavery. Formation of abolitionist parties, like Liberty Party. Set stage for Civil War and eventual emancipation
Women’s Rights Movements
-Goal- Achieve gender equality, focusing on suffrage, property rights, and education (Seneca Falls Convention, main leaders were Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Sojourner Truth)
-Achievements- Laid foundation for the women’s suffrage movement, culminating in the 19th Amendment in 1920
Education Reform
-Goal- Establish free, universal, and compulsory public education to create informed citizenry
-Achievements- Expansion of public schools, especially in North. Improved teacher training and curriculum standards
Prison and Asylum Reform
-Goal- Improve conditions in person and asylum, focusing on rehabilitation rather than punishment
-Achievements- Reform in prison practices like the creation of penitentiaries designed to rehabilitate. Improved care for the mentally ill
Utopian Communities
-Goal- create ideal societies that could serve as models for reform (Brook Farm- based on transcendentalist ideals, Oneida Community- practiced communal living and shared property, Shakers- advocated celibacy, gender equality, and simple living)
-Impact- highlighted alternative ways of living, through most failed due to economic or ideological challenges
Labor Reform
-Goal- Improve working conditions, reduce hours, and advocate for fair wages (child labor, poor factory conditions, and lack of job security)
-Achievements- Formation of early labor unions and advocacy for a 10 hour work day. Increased awareness of industrial workers’ struggles
Moral and Religious Reform
-Second Great Awakening- a religious revival movement that emphasized individual salvation and moral responsibility
-Impact- Inspired other reform movements by emphasizing the potential for societal improvement. Promoted missionary efforts and moral companions against issues like gambling and prostitution
Impact of Age of Reforms
-Democratic Expansion- many reforms aimed to extend rights and opportunities to marginalized groups, through significant challenges remained
-Increased Awareness- reformers used newspaper, pamphlets, and speeches to spread their messages, creating a more informed and engaged public
-Tensions- Reforms often sparked backlash, mainly in South, where abolitionism was seen as a treat to the economy and social order
Growth of Slavery
Colonial Beginnings (1600s-1700s)
-Intro of Slavery- the first African slaves arrived in Virginia in 1719, initially treated similarly to indentured servants. Overtime, Slavery became a hereditary and racial institution, legally codified in colonies by late 1600s
-Economic Foundation- in southern colonies, enslaved labor became crucial to producing cash crops like tobacco, rice, and indigo. The transatlantic slave trade grew to meet the labor demands for plantation agriculture
Cotton Revolution and Expansion (1790-1860s)
-Invention of cotton Gin (1793)- revolutionized cotton processing, making it easier to clean short-staple cotton. This Innovation- made cotton highly profitable and increased the demands for enslaved labor
-Westward Expansion- the need for new territories through the Louisiana Purchase (1803) and westward expansion provided fertile lands for cotton cultivation. Southern planters moved West, bringing enslaves workers w/ them, spreading slavery into new states like mississippi, Alabama, and Texas
-Booming Cotton Economy- cotton became the backbone of the southern economy and a key export for the US (King Cotton). By 1860, the US produced 75% of the cotton and enslaved labor driving production
Political and Legal Foundations
-Constitutional Compromises- US Constitution protected slavery though the compromises like the 3/5 Clause and the continuation of the transatlantic slave trade until 1808
-Fugitive Slave Laws- reinforced the national commitment to maintain slavery by requiring the return of escaped enslaved individuals to their owners
-Territorial Expansion and Slavery- debates over whether new territories would allow slavery dominated national politics leading to compromises like the Missouri Compromise (1820) and increasing sectional tensions
Economic and Social Structures
-Southern Economy- relied heavily on enslaves labor for plantation agriculture. Wealth and social status in the South were tied to ownership of slaves
-Social Control- Enslaved people faced brutal conditions like beatings, limited freedom and constant threat of family separation. Slaves codes restricted slave movements, education, and rights to maintain control
Resistance to Slavery
Enslaved People’s Resistance- enslaved people resisted in various ways like work slowdowns, escapes (rare), and rebellion (Nat Turners Rebellion in 1831)
-Abolitionist Movements- growth of abolitionism in the North challenged slavery through moral arguments, political action, and publications like Fredrick Douglass’s writings and William Lloyd Garrison
Sectional Divide and Prelude to Civil War
-North vs. South- While the north was more industrialized and began to phase out slavery, the south became more reliant on it and argued it was essential to their way of life. Southern leader defended slavery as a “positive good” while northerners abolitionists increasingly called for its end
-Conflicts over Territories- the Mexican-American War and Kansas-Nebraska Act reignited fierce debates over slavery’s expansion. The Dred Scott decision by the Supreme Court denied citizenship of African Americans and further polarized the nation
Build up of Sectionalism- Comp of 1850 through Fort Sumter
Compromise of 1850- Series of laws designed to ease tensions b/n free and slave states following the Mexican-American War (California- free, Fugitive Slave Act, Popular sovereignty in Utah and New Mexico). While it delayed disunion. it showed intensified sectional divisions (mainly due to Fugitive Slave Act)
Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852)- Harriet Beecher Stowe’s anti-slavery novel highlighted the horrors of Slavery. It galvanized abolitionist sentiment in the North and angered the South, which saw it as a propaganda
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)- Proposed by Stephan Douglas, this act allowed popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska territories, effectively overturned the Missouri Compromise’s ban on slavery above the 36 and 30 line. Led to Bleeding Kansas a violent conflict b/n proslavery and antislavery settlers
Formation of the REpublican Part (1854)- Republican Party emerged as a coalition opposed to the expansion of slavery into new territories. It became the dominant political force in the North further polarizing the nation
Dred Scott Decision (1857)- Supreme Court ruled that African Americans went Citizens and had not legal standing. Declared that Congress had no authority to ban slavery in the territories. Deepening northern fears of proslavery federal gov
Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858)-Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas debated the future of slavery in Illinois Senate races. Lincoln argued against the spread of slavery gaining him national prominence, dispute his loss
John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry (1859)- Abolitionist John Brown attempted to incite a slavery revolt by seizing a federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Although the raid failed, it heightened southern fears of a northern-led insurrection and deepened the divide
Election of 1860- Abraham Lincoln won the presidency as a Republican w/out carrying a single southern state. His election was seen as a direct threat to slavery, prompting southern states to consider secession
Secession of Southern States (1860-1861)- Following Lincoln’s victory, South Carolina seceded in December 1860, soon followed by other Southern states, forming the Confederate States of America
Fort Sumter (April 1861)- First shots of the Civil War were fired when Confederate forces tracked Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, signaling the collapse of attempts at comporse and the start of open conflict
Civil War (1861-1865)–Important Battles
Battle Of Fort Sumter (April 1861)
-Location- Charleston, South Carolina
-Significance- marked the start of the Civil War. Confederate forces fired on the Union garrison, forcing its surrender
First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) (July 1861)
-Location- Virginia
-Significance- First major battle of the war, a Confederate victory that shattered Union hopes for a quick victory
Battle of Antietam (Sharpsburg) (sept. 1862)
-Location- Maryland
-Significance- Bloodiest single day in American history, resulting in over 22,000 casualties. It halted Lee’s invasion of the North and led to Lincoln issuing the Emancipation Proclamation
Battle of Gettysburg (July 1863)
-Location- Pennsylvania
-Significance- A turning point in the war, it was the Confederacy’s last major attempt to invade the North. The Union victory inflicted massive losses on Lee’s army
Siege of Vicksburg (May-July 1863)
-Location- Mississippi
-Significance- Gave the Union control of the Mississippi River, splitting the Confederacy in two
Battle of Fort Wagner (July 1863)
-Location- South Carolina
-Significance- Highlighted the bravery of the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment, one of the first American American units in the Union Army
Battle of Chattanooga (Nov 1863)
-Location- Georgia
-Significance- Opened the Deep South to Union invasion, settling the stage for Sherman’s Atlanta Campaign
Battle of Atlanta (July 1864)
-Location- Georgia
-Significance- A critical Union victory that boosted Northern morale and helped ensure Lincoln’s reelection
Appomattox Campaign and Surrender (April 1865)
-Location- Virginia
-Significance- The Union’s victory at Appomattox Court House force Lee to surrender to Grant, effectively ending the war
Civil War–Politics
Causes Rooted in politics
-Governance Failures- Civil wars often arise in states where gov fail to address grievances like political exclusion, corruption, or repression
-Ethic or Sectarian Divides- Political systems that don’t support specific groups based on ethnicity, religion, or identity can become flashpoints for conflict
-Inequality and Resource Allocation- Disparities in wealth and unequal access to resources often have political underpinnings and can drive civil unrest
Role of Political Actors
-State Vs. Rebel Groups- Gov often face insurgent groups w/ political agendas like demands for autonomy, independence, or systemic change
-Internal Influence- Foreign states may back one side for ideological reasons, strategic interests, or economic gain, turning civil wars into proxy wars
-Local Governance- Rebel-controlled areas often develop parallel governance systems, shaping how pop perceive legitimacy
Political Implications of Civil War
-Regime Change- Civil wars can lead to overthrow of gov, as seen in conflicts like the Russian Civil War
-Succession- In some cases, Civil Wars result in the creation of new states, like South Sudan in 2011
-Post-War Governance- Negotiating power-sharing agreements, constitutional reforms, and transitional justice are critical but challenging aspects of post-civil war politics
Challenges in Peacebuilding
-Political Reconciliation- Ensuring former enemies can coexist and govern together is a central challenge
-Elections and Democratization- While elections are often proposed as a solution, they can reignite tensions if perceived as unfair or exclusionary
-Institutional Weakness- Post-civil war states often struggle w/ weak political institutions, leading to instability
Reconstruction–Plans (1865-1877)
A complex and continuous process aimed at rebuilding the South and integrating freed African Americans into society
Lincolns Reconstruction Plan (10%)
-Goal- Reunite the Union as quickly and leniently as possible
-Key Features- Allowed Southern states to rejoin the Union once 10% of their voters swore on oath of allegiance to the US and accepted the abolition of slavery. Offered pardons to Confederates who pledged loyalty to the Union, except for High-ranking Confederate leaders. Encouraged the creation of new state gov that would abolish slavery
-Reaction- criticized as too lenient by Radical Republicans who wanted harsher measures to ensure justice for freedmen and punish South
Andrew Johnson’s Plan
-Goal- Continue Lincolns approach but w/ greater emphasis on restoring Southern power
-KF- Required Southern states to ratify the 13th Amendment (abolishing slavery). Allowed many former Confederate leaders and wealthy Southerners to regain political power after applying for individual pardons. Didn’t proprotoze protections for freedom African Americans
-Reaction- Angered Radical Republicans, who felt Johnson’s policies restored Southern elites to power and ignored the plight of freedmen
Radical Republican Reconstruction (Congressional Reconstruction)
-Goal- Reshape Southern society to ensure rights for African Americans and prevent former Confederates from regaining power
-KF- Divided the South into 5 military districts under federal control. Required Southern states to draft new constitutions guaranteeing African American men the right to vote. Mandated the ratification of the 14th Amendment (granting citizenship and equal protection under the law) and later 15th Amendment (Ensuring voting rights for African American men). Enforced federal laws to protect freedmen, including the Freedmen’s Bureau, which provided education, housing and legal assistance
-Reaction- Opposed by southern Democrats and many white Southerners, leading to violent backlash, including the rise of groups like the Ku Klux Klan
Key Challenges and Outcomes
-Achievements- Passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments fundamentally reshaped the Constitution. Brief political empowerment of African Americans, w/ some elected to Congress and state legislatures. Establishment of public schools in the South
-Failures- Widespread violence and suppression of African American rights through Black Codes, Jim Crow laws, and voter intimidation. The Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction, removing federal troops from the South and leaving African Americans vulnerable to systemic discrimination
Reconstruction (1865-1877)–Long Term Effects
Civil Rights Advancements and Limitations
-Amendments to the Constitution- 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments abolished slavery, granted citizenship to all born in the US and ensured voting rights regardless of race and these amendments laid the foundation for future civil rights movements
-Jim Crow Laws and Segregation- Despite these advancements, the end of Reconstruction saw the rise of discriminatory laws in the South, leading to systemic racial segregation and disenfranchisement of Black Americans for nearly a century
Economic Changes
-Sharecropping and Tenant Farming- While slavery ended, the Southern economy transitioned to systems like sharecropping, which trapped many freedmen and poor whites in cycles of debt and poverty
-Industrialization and Regional Disparities- Reconstruction saw some industrial development in the South, but the region remained largely agrarian and economically behind the North for decades
Federal vs. State Power- Reconstruction expanded federal gov authority to enforce civil rights and oversee state gov. This tension b/n federal and state power continued to shape US politics, especially during the civil rights era of the 20th century
Political Realignments
-Rise of the Solid South- Southern states became a stronghold for the Democratic party after Reconstruction, opposing Republican and Reconstruction policies
-Legacy of Racism in Politics- The failure of Reconstruction to secure long-term racial equality allowed racial discrimination to persist in political systems and policies
Cultural and Social Impacts
-African American Communities- Reconstruction frosted the development of Black institutions like churches, schools, and community organizations, which became centers of resilience and resistance
-Lost Opportunities- The premature end of Reconstruction left deep scars, contributing to racial divisions and systemic inequality that still resonate today
Foundation for Future Movements- while many of Reconstruction’s promises went unfulfilled int eh short term, its legal and constitutional changes provided a foundation for later efforts to achieve racial and social justice like the Civil Rights Movement of the 20th century
