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cell physiology > midterm review > Flashcards

midterm review Flashcards

1
Q

what are the similarities of the cells

A
  • requires o2 and energy yielding nutrients to sustain life
  • removal of c02 and other waste products
  • biochemical mechanism to convert nutrietns to energy
  • replication: the ability to reporducce new cells from older- cells some exceptiosn
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2
Q

what are the 4 primary tissue types

A

muscle
nervous
epithelial
ct

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3
Q

what types of cells are in the 4 primary tissues

A

muscle: for contraction: skeletal cardiac smooth
nervous; for communication; neurons glia
e.t: for forming membranes and glands
membranes: squamous, columnar, cuboidal
glands: exocrine, endocrine
c.t: specialized for providing nutrients structure and support

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4
Q

what is an organ

A

composed of 2 or more primary tissues (often all 4)

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5
Q

largest organ in body

A

skin

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6
Q

what is a system

A

organs that are located in diff regions of the body and that perform related fnctions

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7
Q

examples of systems

A

integumentary, nervous, endocrine, skeletal, muscular, circulatory immune respiratory urinary, digestive reproductive

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8
Q

idea behind homeostasis

A

bodys way of maintaining appropriate environmental state to provide optimum function

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9
Q

how does homeostasis apply to physiology

A

phyisiology is largeyly about maintaining homeostasis in the body

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10
Q

what molecules does the cell membrane pass and not pass without channels

A

pass: anything without a charge

channel needed: charge

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11
Q

what molecules found primarily in extracellular space

A

know: cl- na+

and o2

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12
Q

what molecules found primarily in intracellular space

A

know: K+

and Mg+, phosphate ions (atp, adp, crp,)

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13
Q

what is plasma

A

circulating blood without erythrocytes

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14
Q

what does the interstitial space resemble

A

intracellular

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15
Q

how does hemoglobin maintain homeostasis in blood ox

A

oxygen-buffering function of hemoglobin: hemo carries 02 in blood and regulates o2 concentration in extra fluid.
if o2 is high hb does not release it
if o2 is low, o2 released to reestablish concentration

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16
Q

how does the brain maintain carbon dioxide concentrations from becoming to high

A

higher then normal co2 excites the respiratory center in bran and causes person tobreakth faster and deeper, this increases amount of co2 returning to the lungs

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17
Q

what cranial nerve are involved with the process of regulating co2

A

vagus and glossopharyngeal

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18
Q

what is the name of the sense organ/receptor that detects carbond diozide levels

A

chemoreceptors and carotid body

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19
Q

what brain area acts as the major thermostat fro the body

A

hypothalamus

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20
Q

wuse a negative feedback loop model to explain how blood glucose levels are maintained

A
  1. eat food, stimulus: rising blood glucose level
  2. high blood glucose level is detected by insulin secreting cells of pancreas
  3. pancreas secretes insulin causing liver to take up glucose and store it as glycogen and cells take up glucose
  4. as body cells take up blood glucose, glucose levels in the blood decline and insulin release stops
  5. return to homeostatic blood glucose level
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21
Q

explain how positive feedback loop works

A

its like a snowballing effect

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22
Q

how is positive feedback diff then neg feedback

A

positive causes more stuf too happen

negative causes stuff to stop if too much

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23
Q

pos or neg more common in body

A

neg

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24
Q

how does oxytocin act in the feedback loop of uterine contractiosn during childbirth

A
  1. head of fetus pushes against cervix
  2. nerve impusles from cervic goes to brain
  3. brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin
  4. oxytocin carried in bloodstream to uterus
  5. oxytocin stimulates uterine contractsion and pushes fetus toward cervix.
  6. which makes head of fetus pushes against cervics
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25
Q

what are some other examples of positive feedback looops

A

blood clothing: tissue cut, clotting factors come until a clot is formed
child birth:
nerve signals: na+ leaking into tissue, cause membrane to change and it has to continule until reaches fibers
hemorrhaging: blood not reaturining to heart (vicious cycle)

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26
Q

allostasis

A

when you reset the normal set point

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27
Q

examples of allostasis

A

changing salt levels in body cause of high salt diet

stress and cortisol

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28
Q

plasma membrane

A

amphipathic bilayer made mostly of phospholipids separating intercellular (protoplasm) from extracellular environment

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29
Q

nucleus

A

membrane bounded organelle that contains genetic material

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30
Q

cytoplasm

A

jelly like substance that contains the organelles between the cell mrmbane and the nuclea membrane

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31
Q

nuclear envelope

A

2 phospholipid bilayer (4 lines phospholipid involved) that has pores that allow transfer of substances in and out

the outer layer joins e.r

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32
Q

cytoskeleton

A

structural part of protoplasm, microtubules and microfilaments, intermediate fibiers

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33
Q

nucleolus

A

no membrane surrounding it, a mass of ribosomal rna

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34
Q

ions mainly in extracellular fluid

A

na, cl, ca2+

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35
Q

what types of proteins found in cytoskeleton

A

microtubules, microfilaments

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36
Q

how are they similar and diff (microtube and microfilm)

A

tubule : support, main system for protein transport of big things
filament: motility, important for cell moving nad cell division and maintaining general shape

both are shaped similarily but fil is smaller

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37
Q

what types of lipids are found in cell membranes

A

phospholipids: main part of layer
cholesterol: creates kinks in cell so membrane is more fluid and on schwann cells

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38
Q

what roles do carbs serve in cell

A

for nutrition, confer special properties to proteins by changing their structure when attached
i.d. tag stuff

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39
Q

name 3 major functions of the cell membrane

A
  1. allows selective communication between intracellular and extracellular compartments
  2. aids cellular movement
  3. gives cell its form
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40
Q

which part of the cell membrane is hydrophobic

A

nonpolar tail

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41
Q

which part of cell membrane is hydrophilic

A

polar head

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42
Q

what is a micelle

A

a bunch /small group of phospholipids that form a sphere

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43
Q

liposome

A

ABUNCH lot of phospholipids that form a bilayer and sphere

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44
Q

how are integral and peripheral proteins structurally different

A

integral: protrudes the bilayer
peripheral: only attached to 1 layer

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45
Q

how are integral and peri proteins functionally diff

A

integral: provides channels/pores, carrier proteins in active transport, enzymes and receptors
peripheral: attaches to integral proteins, mostly enzymes

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46
Q

glycocalyx

A

loose cho coating on the outer surface of the cell membrane which has several functions

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47
Q

glycolipid

A

membrane carb combined with lipid

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48
Q

glycoprotein

A

membrane carb combined with protein

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49
Q

function of glycocalyx

A
  1. makes cell sticky and bind to other cells
  2. makes it receptors for binding hormones like ligans
  3. gives surface a negative charge and repel negative molecules
  4. assist with immune reactions
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50
Q

what is extracellular matrix

A

fluid outside of cell

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51
Q

basic properties described by the fluid masaic model of the cell membrane

A

cell is not stuck

there are lots of things in phopholipid

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52
Q

what part of cell involved in making long term changes to diff environmental signals

A

nucleus

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53
Q

difference b/w genetic vs epigenetic effect on gene expression

A

genetic: alters directly on dna transcription
epigenetic: changes NOT ON dna but on gene expression

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54
Q

ex: of diff of genetic vs epigenetic

A

X-chromosome inactivation

histone acetylation/deacetylation

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55
Q

describe how histone acetylation works

A

dna (neg charge) wrapped around histone protein (pos), prevents dna from being exposed and transcribed

addition of acetyl group unwinds and exposes dna allowing transcription (therefore expression)

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56
Q

chromosome

A

contains genes cause dna has genes (larger visible chromatin)

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57
Q

chromatid

A

Each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA

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58
Q

chromatin

A

smaller version of chromosome (dna around histone)

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59
Q

heterochromatin

A

state of chromatin where dna is tightly around histone so not transcirbable

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60
Q

euchromati

A

loose chromatin that is ready to be transcribed

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61
Q

why dna naturally wrap around histone protein

A

because dna is neg histone is positive

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62
Q

nucleolus

A

has no membrane surrounding it, a mass of ribosomal rna

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63
Q

similar and diff between plasma membrane nad nuclear envelope

A

plasma membrane surrounds entire cell

nuclear envelope surround nucleus

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64
Q

where in cell find ribosome

A

nucleolus and cytoplasm and e.r

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65
Q

molecular component of ribosome

A

1 rna, 1 ribosomal protein (5 carbon sugar)

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66
Q

function of ribosome

A

protein making factories

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67
Q

how e.r. connected to nucleus

A

it is a continuation of outer membrane of nuclear envelope

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68
Q

how 2 types of e.r. diff structure

A

rough er has ribosome

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69
Q

how. 2 types of e.r. diff functionally

A

smooth: synthesizes lipid substances
rough: synthesizes new proteins in cell

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70
Q

name of process where carb tag is added to synthesized protein in e.r or Golgi ap

A

glycosylation

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71
Q

how proteins get transported from e.r. to golgi

A

small e.r vesicles pinch off e.r and fuse with Golgi apparatus

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72
Q

what is characteristic structure of Golgi apparatus

A

cisternae: stacked layers of thin vesicles

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73
Q

what types of functions do vesicles realsed from Golgi apparatus have

A
  1. form lysosoems
  2. form secretory vesicles
  3. for other cytoplasmic components
  4. take proteins and enzymes to outer cell membrane
    5 make chondroitin sulfate
  5. make hyaluronic acid
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74
Q

how lysosomes formed

A

from breaking off of the Golgi aparatus

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75
Q

what is lysosome function

A

digesting food particesl that have been digested by the cells
destroying bacterial components
digesting damaged cellular components

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76
Q

what type of biochemical process does a lysosome use to digest larger material

A

autophagy

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77
Q

how are lysosome related to apoptosis

A

certain enzymes pass through the semi-permeable membrane of lysosome and destroy cell in ordered fashion preventing relase of cell components into extracellular environment

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78
Q

how lysosome related to necrosis

A

contents of lysosome are emptied and hydrolytic enzymes attack host cell

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79
Q

whats difference of apoptosis and necrosis

A

necrosis is uncontrolled

80
Q

how are peroxisomes formed

A

from self replication of budding off the smooth er (not Golgi)

81
Q

what are functions of peroxisomes

A

they contain oxidases rather then hydrolases. the oxidases combine O with H to form hydrogen peroxides which oxidizes poisonous substrances

82
Q

what kind of molecules are broken down by peroxisomes

A

detoxify alcohol and break down long chain fatty acids

83
Q

what biochemical process do perosixomes use

A

pentose phosphate pathway or glycolysis?

84
Q

what structural characteristics of mitochondria

A

has 2 bilayers (like nuclear fold)

85
Q

major function of mitochondria

A

atp synthesis by infolding to for shelves for ribosomes and oxidative enzymes

86
Q

how mitcochondria replicate

A

mtdna is replicated but some could be replicated more then other

87
Q

how has mitochondria replication been used in genetic studies

A

mtDNA is passed on maternally so can trace it back

88
Q

pinocytosis

A

lil nibble, cell drinking,
ingestion of minute particles by foring vesicles of extracellular fluid and the particles suspended in it

invagination

89
Q

receptor mediated endocytosis

A

molecules bind to protein receptors in coated pits, when pit is full the entire pit invaginates and forms a vesicle

90
Q

phagocytosis

A

similar to pinocytosis but for larger particles

91
Q

major purpose of pino, receptor mediated endo, phago

A

pino: invaginates and takes stuff from extracellular fluid
receptor: brings in specific molecules cause of the receptor process
endo: to take things out
phago: eats and destroys things

92
Q

how does a lysosome function with pino, receptor med endo, phago

A

in all three endocytosis, lysosomes attach to the vesicles nad empty their digestive enzymes into the vesicles

93
Q

multivesicular body

A

a lysosome that is a membranous sac containing numerous small endocytic vesicles

94
Q

what are the molecules that carry heritable information

A

dna

95
Q

what are the molecules that carry out the functions of this infor withitn the cell

A

proteins

96
Q

how woudld you explain clarify the statemvent “ive got defective gene for dancing so that is is biologically more accurate

A

you have the gene because you are born with ti, it just isn’t being expressed

it expresses at 2 diff points: during development and when adapting to outside environment

gene: hair color
allele: specific brown haircolor

97
Q

what is central dogma

A

dna - rna - protein

98
Q

what is a nuclesome

A

dna surrounded by a pile of histones

99
Q

how is a nucleosome organized

A

it has the dna strand wrapped around the histone, tight

100
Q

what is the structure of dna

A

dna is a double helix with alternating phosphate and deoxyribose molecultes

101
Q

what are the specific molecules that are found in dna

A

phosphate, deoxyribose

nitrogen bases: adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine

102
Q

how are base pairs organized in dna

A

a-t

c-g with hydrogen bonds

103
Q

how does the organization of dna base pairs compare /contrast to mrna

A

a-u
c-g
mrna does not use t

104
Q

what structurally defines a gene

A

idk its expression by transcription factors?

105
Q

what is attached differentlay to the 5’ end of dDNA rather than the 3’ end

A

5’: phosphate

3’: oH

106
Q

what is the name of the enzyme hat unzips dna for both replicaion and transcription

A

dna helicase

107
Q

what is a transcription factor

A

could be an enhancer, repressor, co-activator that affects the expression of genes

108
Q

qhat is the major enzyme involved in initiating transcription and polymerizing mrna

A

rna polymerase

109
Q

in what direction does elongation take place

A

5’ to 3’

110
Q

what molecular actors affect the differentiation and specialization of cells in developoment

A

transcription factors

111
Q

how do molecular actors affect the differentiation and speicialiation of cells in deveklopment

A

(helps determine how the zygote divides and differentiates into specialized cell types)

112
Q

what type of base pair bonding takes place between dna and polymerizing mrna

A

a-u

c-g

113
Q

how many mrna molecules can be transcribed from the same dna at the same time

A

many/?

114
Q

what factors affect termination of transcription

A

coding sequence of dna or automatic folding and dissoacitaion of mrna once produced

115
Q

what are micro rna

A

mini strands of mrna

116
Q

what function do micro rna have

A

that swim their way between mrna strands and ribosomes to prevent translation

117
Q

how are mrna different than trna

A

mrna is a specific ribonucleic acid and it codes straight from dna,
trna binds to mrna codons and carry the amino acid end products

118
Q

where do u find rrna

A

in ribosome

119
Q

what are some of the differences betwwn pre mrna and mature mrna

A

premrna is the nuclear mrna created from transcription, it has introns and exons

mature mrna has only exons in it (translocation)

120
Q

what does a spliceosome do

A

cleaves out portions of mRNA that will not be translated to proteins

121
Q

how can the same strand of dna creat different mrna splice variants

A

splicing of specific introns and exons allows for different splice variants to be created from the same dna sequence

122
Q

what is a UTR

A

Untranslated Region

123
Q

what functions does a 5’ cap and poly A tail serve

A

5’cap tells where transcription start

poly a tail: makes it stable so that nucleases eats the small rna pieces

124
Q

what part of the premRNA (and DNA0 will be spliced out of the mature mrna strand

A

introns

125
Q

which part will be remain in from the premrna strands in the now mature mrna

A

extrons

126
Q

what part of the cell does most rna splicing take place

A

nucleus

127
Q

in what part of the cell does translationtake place

A

cytoplasm

128
Q

what is a codon

A

triplet sequence of nucleotides

129
Q

what type of molecule will have a codon

A

mrna

130
Q

what is an anti-codon

A

A sequence of three nucleic acid bases on transfer RNA molecules which recognizes and binds to three corresponding bases (called a codon

131
Q

what type of molecule will have an anitcodon

A

trna

132
Q

what is the start codon

A

ATG

133
Q

what is the amino acid associated with it

A

methionine

134
Q

what are the stop codons

A

UAA, UAG, UGA or TAA aka

135
Q

what are the amindo acids associated with it stop

A

none

136
Q

why is it that most point mutations in a base result ina funcitional protein without major pathophysiology (there are multiple answers)

A

because it only affects one gene not the whole chromosome (usually the gene mutation just affects like the neding of a protein or switches amino acids)

also most mutations occur in the gray intron areas so even tho on dna its not trascnribed to protein

137
Q

where would one expect to find most mutations between individuals in mRNA

A

in the middle where you do splicing out (the introns)

138
Q

why would one expect to find most mutations between individusl in mrna

A

because that is the begning of the transcription and there are lots of places to remove stuff

cause it decides what becomes a protein

139
Q

what is the directionality of translation of the mrna

A

5’ to 3’

140
Q

what molecule provides most of the neryg to creat the new peptide bonds between the amino acids in the newly formed chain

A

atp

141
Q

describe a negative feedback mechanism on DNA synthesis

A

purines and pyrimidines are needed in equal amounts for dna synthesis tooccur

purines inhibit enzymes for purine formation and activates enzymes for pyrimidine (opposite of pyrimidine)

142
Q

describe a generic model for negative feedback in enzymatic synthesis of products

A

enzymes help make stuff and as more of that stuff is made,the enzyme is inhibited (allosteric conformational change)

143
Q

describe the stages of the cell cycle, what occurs during each of thediff maor stages

A

G1: normal time of cells
checkpoint: start to build up metabolites
S synthesis stage: everything in cells has doubled, dna replicated
G2 growth 2: everything is priming for division, fixing errors in dna replication
M: cell division

144
Q

how much of the cell’s life cycle is spent in mitosis

A

5%

145
Q

how does dna replication work

A

in the S phase: both strands of DNA is replicated completely and dna is exposed

146
Q

what enzymes are involved in dna replication

A 
dna polymerase
dna ligase (not in rna)
147
Q

how does dna replication differ from transcription

A

its different then transcription because it neds the entire strand replicated and nothing is deleted out and there are 2 strands being developed so there are lil gaps while replicated that are put together

148
Q

would dna ligase act in transcrtion why or why note

A

no because dna ligase puts the pieces of dna together because of the unwinding of the dna makes it hard to make a solid strand of new dna

149
Q

what enzymes are involved in dna proofreading

A

dna ligase and polymerase

150
Q

what happends when dna proofreading fails

A

mutation

151
Q

are the consequences of failed proofreading always dire or mostly negligible

A

causes abnormal proteins , can lead to cell malfunction or cell death

152
Q

majo even in prophase

A

chromosomes are condensed and paired up to form chromatids, centromeres start to line in the poles of the cell

153
Q

major even in prometaphase

A

nucleus envelope dissolves, microtubules legs go out to grab chromatids

154
Q

major event in metaphase

A

chromatids line up

155
Q

major event in anaphase

A

chromatids pulled apart

156
Q

major event in telophase

A

cytokinesis, nuclear envelope forms

157
Q

what is cytokinesis

A

cells pinch off from each other

158
Q

how is a totipotnent stem cell different tha a pluripotent stem cell

A

toitipotent stem cells: have unlimited capability of forming things, ex: embryo
pluripotent: are capable of giving rise to most tissues ex: inner mass cells but not every like toitipotent

159
Q

how is a totipotent sten cell different then a multipotent stem cell

A

toitipotent: anything
multipotent: only give rise to cells with a sepcific function like blood stem cells (the most specific stem cell of htem all)

160
Q

be able to explain how ccervical cancer can be c acused bby hpv. should involve transcription, translation, cell division (proliferation) and apoptosis

A

the virus is a nucleic acid that uses central dogma to start making proteins
hpv 16 and 18 cause it

virus invades cells genomes and becomes rna and prteins. e5-7 come together and get rid of check points in cell division

usually cell kills itself with apoptosis but virus wont let it with the e5-7 proteins

161
Q

what are some of the major ions foundi n higher intracellular concentrations relative to the extracellurlar fluid

A

intra: K+ <—- KNOW mg + phosphate atp, adp, crp

162
Q

what about higher extracell concetrations (whats more ions in extra)

A

Na+ Cl- Ca2+ <—KNOW o2

163
Q

what are some of the charges on these ions (intra and extra)

A

mainly + except for Cl- (extra)

there are some proteins with - charge intra

164
Q

charges of other molecules intra and esxtra

A

proteins - in intracellular

165
Q

what type of energy source fules the diffeusion of molecules

A

goes from high concentration to low; DONT need atp

166
Q

what are the different charges fo the components of the lipid ilayer

A

polar charged head

nonpolar unchard tail

167
Q

what molecules are kept from passing thorugh the membrane cause of charged bilayer

A

polar things

168
Q

what molecules are free to pass throught eh membrane (charge solubility)

A

nonpolar thigns fatty things

169
Q

what are some expamples of lipid soluble molecules

A

steroid hormones (testosterone, estrogen cortisol)

170
Q

What is the name of the specialized channels in the cell membrane that allows water to pass through freely?

A

aquaporins

171
Q

Why can’t ions pass through these channels

A

hydration shell (water around ions) make it too big

172
Q

What must happen for a K+ ion to become small enough to travel through a leaky K+ channel? How does this occur?

A

they have to strip their hydration shell (by the integral channel) once gets into cytosol, the hydration molecules attach back

173
Q

Does this require energy from ATP? (K+ shell)

A

no

174
Q

What are two common mechanisms for Na+ ions to travel across the membrane through Na+ channels?

A

ligand gated channels/chemically gated

voltage gated

175
Q

What is the name of the common ligand-gated Na+ channel found at the neuromuscular junction.

A

nicotinic receptor (the gate) is ligand gated chanells

176
Q

How does a voltage-gated Na+ channel contribute to the action potential positive feedback loop?

A

as more and more charge builds up, it makes the actional potential happen

177
Q

In facilitated diffusion, is ATP required?

A

no

178
Q

In the facilitated diffusion of glucose, insulin signaling to cells promotes what process that inserts carrier proteins into the cell membrane?

A

membrane trafficking (brings more glut 4 to membrane)

179
Q

What is the specific name of the carrier protein in the insulin-glucose example above?

A

Glut 4

180
Q

What are the 3 factors that affect net diffusion?

A
  1. size of concentration gradiatent
  2. electromotive force/Nernst potential (compare pull of ions)
  3. pressure difference across the membrane
181
Q

What is the definition of osmosis?

A

diffusion of water caused by a concentration difference of water

182
Q

In a 0.9% NaCl solution, what is the solute, what is the solvent?

A

solute: nacl
solvent: water

183
Q

Which solution has greater osmotic pressure, 0.9% NaCl, or 19% NaCl?

A

19% nacli

184
Q

What would happen to your red blood cells if you received an IV of distilled water rather 0.9% NaCl? Why?

A

cells become stuffed with water nad be hypotonic because water wants to go into the cell cause it has less h20 in it and has solute in it

185
Q

Where are the cells that detect changes in plasma osmolarity? How do they work?

A

osmoreceptors
when plasma has low water concentration the cells lose water to hyperotinc blood and deform cells which signals osmoreceptors to release adh

186
Q

the name of the hormone secreted that tells the kidneys to conserve urine? Where is it secreted from?

A

adh,

posterior pituitary

187
Q

Does osmosis explain why our fingers become wrinkled after spending a long time in the shower? Why or why not? What other mechanisms might be at work?

A

m

188
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary active transport?

A

s

189
Q

How are carrier proteins different in active transport vs. facilitated diffusion?

A

s

190
Q

In the Na+/K+/ATPase pump, how many ions of each type, and in what direction, do they go relative to the cell membrane?

A

d

191
Q

Is this towards or against the concentration gradients?

A

d

192
Q

How does this pump alter osmolarity to regulate cell volume?

A

d

193
Q

How does this pump contribute a net division of charge (electromotive force) to the cell membrane?

A

d

194
Q

Where do you find the highest concentrations of calcium?

A

s

195
Q

How do you bring calcium into the cytoplasm? Describe one mechanism, and include the number of ions and the energy requirements.

A

d

196
Q

Contrast symport from antiport transport mechanisms. Give an example of each

A

s

197
Q

What type of mechanisms exist for bulk transport? How does each type compare relative to the size of molecule or molecules it can shuttle into or out of the cell?

A

s

cell physiology (1 decks)

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