Midterm Studying

Question 1

What is the core principle of systematic empiricism in scientific inquiry?

Answer 1

Systematic empiricism involves systematically making, recording, and analyzing observations of the natural world.

It is considered superior to informal observation due to its structured and controlled methods, allowing for more reliable and valid conclusions and minimizing biases.

Question 2

What is the difference between an empirical question and a non-empirical question? Provide one example of each.

Answer 2

An empirical question can be answered by systematic observation, e.g., ‘Does regular exercise improve mood?’. A non-empirical question concerns values or beliefs, e.g., ‘Is it morally wrong to eat meat?’.

Empirical questions are about factual matters, while non-empirical questions are subjective.

Question 3

What is a 2x2 factorial design?

Answer 3

A 2x2 factorial design is an experiment with two independent variables, each having two distinct levels or conditions.

This design allows for the examination of main effects and interaction effects.

Question 4

Define a main effect in a factorial design.

Answer 4

Main effects refer to the direct effect of each independent variable on the dependent variable, considered independently of the other independent variable.

Question 5

What is an interaction effect in a factorial design?

Answer 5

An interaction effect occurs when the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable depends on the level of another independent variable.

Question 6

What is the purpose of null hypothesis testing in statistical analysis?

Answer 6

Null hypothesis testing is used to decide between two interpretations of a statistical relationship in a sample.

The null hypothesis (H0) states there is no effect, while the alternative hypothesis (H1) states that there is an effect.

Question 7

What does an independent samples t-test do?

Answer 7

An independent samples t-test compares the means of two independent groups.

It is typically used with between-subject designs.

Question 8

What indicates a statistically significant p-value (p < 0.05)?

Answer 8

It indicates that the observed data are unlikely to have occurred by chance alone if the null hypothesis were true, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis.

Question 9

What does a non-significant p-value (p > 0.05) suggest?

Answer 9

It suggests that there is not enough statistical evidence to reject the null hypothesis.

Question 10

What is ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) used for?

Answer 10

ANOVA is used to determine if there are statistically significant differences between the means of two or more groups in an experiment.

Question 11

What was the initial finding regarding coffee consumption and mortality in the Freedman et al. (2012) study?

Answer 11

The initial age-adjusted analysis showed an increased risk of death among coffee drinkers.

Question 12

How did the multivariate analysis in the Freedman et al. (2012) study differ from the initial findings?

Answer 12

The multivariate analysis showed a significant inverse association between coffee consumption and total mortality after adjusting for confounders like tobacco-smoking status.

Question 13

What are grid cells and where are they found?

Answer 13

Grid cells are neurons found in the medial entorhinal cortex that fire in multiple spatial locations.

Question 14

What is a key characteristic of the firing pattern of grid cells?

Answer 14

Their firing fields form a remarkably regular triangular or hexagonal pattern that tiles the environment.

Question 15

What role do grid cells play in spatial navigation?

Answer 15

They are believed to be a key component of the brain’s spatial navigation system, providing a metric for location.

Question 16

What is a non-empirical question?

Answer 16

A question that concerns values, beliefs, or abstract concepts and cannot be directly answered through observation.

Question 17

What is the definition of a confounder?

Answer 17

A variable that is related to both the independent and dependent variables, potentially distorting the observed relationship between them.

Question 18

What is a hazard ratio?

Answer 18

A measure of how often a particular event occurs in one group compared to another group over time.

Question 19

Define confidence interval (CI).

Answer 19

A range of values that is likely to contain the true value of a population parameter with a certain degree of confidence.

Question 20

What are place cells?

Answer 20

Neurons in the hippocampus that fire specifically when an animal occupies a particular location in its environment.

Question 21

What is the role of head-direction cells?

Answer 21

Neurons that fire when an animal’s head is oriented in a specific direction.

Question 22

What does negative geotaxis refer to?

Answer 22

The innate behavior of some organisms, like Drosophila, to move upwards against gravity.

Question 23

What are dopaminergic systems?

Answer 23

Neural pathways and systems in the brain that utilize the neurotransmitter dopamine for signaling.

Question 24

What does CNS-specific mean?

Answer 24

Confined to or specifically affecting the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

Question 25

What is a key characteristic that distinguishes naturalistic observation from other research methods?

Answer 25

Observation of behavior in its natural context ## Footnote Naturalistic observation focuses on how individuals behave in their real-life environments without manipulation or control.

Question 26

Which option best describes a case study?

Answer 26

An in-depth investigation of a single individual, often with unique characteristics ## Footnote Case studies provide detailed insights into individual cases, often revealing complex behaviors or conditions.

Question 27

When is a Spearman correlation most appropriate?

Answer 27

Your data includes outliers that you want to ignore ## Footnote Spearman correlation is a non-parametric measure that assesses how well the relationship between two variables can be described using a monotonic function.

Question 28

Which statement is FALSE about t-tests?

Answer 28

The t-test can be used to assess interactions in factorial designs ## Footnote T-tests are designed for comparing means but do not assess interactions, which are analyzed using ANOVA.

Question 29

Fill in the blank: The __________ variable is what the experimenter manipulates, while the __________ variable is what is measured.

Answer 29

independent; dependent ## Footnote The independent variable is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Question 30

Fill in the blank: In a factorial design, when the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another, this is known as an __________.

Answer 30

interaction ## Footnote An interaction occurs when the effect of one factor differs depending on the level of another factor.

Question 31

Fill in the blank: The problem in correlational research when it is unclear which variable causes which is called the __________ problem.

Answer 31

directionality ## Footnote The directionality problem arises when it is not clear whether variable A causes variable B, or vice versa.

Question 32

Fill in the blank: In an ANOVA, the __________ ratio is calculated to determine if group means differ more than would be expected by chance.

Answer 32

F ## Footnote The F ratio compares the variance between the groups to the variance within the groups.

Question 33

Explain the difference between a main effect and an interaction in the context of a 2x2 factorial design.

Answer 33

A main effect refers to the direct influence of one independent variable on the dependent variable, while an interaction occurs when the effect of one independent variable differs depending on the level of another independent variable. For example, in a study examining food type (fries vs. ice cream) and condiment (ketchup vs. chocolate sauce), a main effect would show how fries are preferred over ice cream overall, while an interaction would reveal that the preference for fries is stronger with ketchup than with chocolate sauce.

Question 34

Compare and contrast naturalistic observation and case study methods.

Answer 34

Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects in their real-life environments without interference, making it suitable for studying behaviors in context. Case studies provide in-depth analysis of a single subject or group, often revealing unique insights about particular cases. Naturalistic observation is best for broad behavioral questions, while case studies are ideal for exploring rare or complex phenomena.

Question 35

In the research on hippocampal volume and memory test performance, what is a specific alternative hypothesis?

Answer 35

Increased hippocampal volume is associated with better performance on a memory test ## Footnote This hypothesis suggests a positive correlation between hippocampal size and memory capabilities.

Question 36

Identify what kind of research design is used in the hippocampal volume study and a potential confounding variable.

Answer 36

Correlation design; age ## Footnote Age could affect both hippocampal volume and memory performance, potentially confounding the results.