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EPS N82 > Midterm Topics > Flashcards

Midterm Topics Flashcards

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1
Q

How old is the universe?

A

Approximately 13.7 billion years old

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2
Q

What is the difference between the heliocentric and geocentric models?

A

Geocentric model puts the Earth at the center of the solar system with the other planets and Sun revolving around it

Heliocentric model puts Sun at the center of the solar system with the Earth and the other planets revolving around it

Retrograde motion of Mars helped spur the transition between two models

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3
Q

What evidence do we have that the universe is expanding?

A

Due to the Doppler Effect, we know that wavelengths of objects moving towards us will be shorter and those moving farther will be longer.

Since light from distant galaxies is red-shifted (longer wavelength), we know they are moving farther away from us, and thus, the universe is expanding

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4
Q

What is parallax?

A

Parallax is the apparent shift in position of an object caused by viewing from different places. Stellar parallax (caused by Earth’s different locations during solar orbit) lets us estimate distances to planets and stars

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5
Q

How do stars work?

A

Stars derive their energy through nuclear fusion. They start with hydrogen and continue fusing to get continuously heavier elements.

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6
Q

How was our solar system formed?

A

Formed through a nebula
As the nebula contracts due to gravity, it flattens
Star is born in the center and the disk becomes planets
Hydrogen and helium remain gases but others can condense into solids
Seeds collide and combine, and their gravity attracts other seeds

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7
Q

Order of the Planets

A

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

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8
Q

Which planets are rocky? Gaseous?

A

The inner planets (Mercury to Mars) are rocky. The outer planets (Jupiter to Neptune) are gaseous.

Inner planets are rocky because warm temperatures only allow rocks and metals to be solid near the Sun.

Outer planets are gaseous as the colder temperature allows gases to condense and accrete near planets.

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9
Q

Is Pluto a planet?

A

Pluto is not a planet as it doesn’t have the same orbital plane as the other planets and is rocky; rocky planets are usually close to the Sun

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10
Q

How old is Earth?

A

Around 4.5 billion years old. Oldest meteorites on Earth are 4.5 billion years old and oldest minerals are 4.2 billion years old.

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11
Q

What is the difference between volatile and refractory elements?

A

Volatile elements have a low boiling point and condense at low temperatures

  • Examples include light elements (H, He) and gases at room temperature (O, N, Ne, Air)
  • Formed gas giants

Refractory elements have a high boiling point and remain solid even at high temperatures

  • Heavier elements such as Ca, Al, Fe, Mg, Ni, Si (around 1000-1500 C)
  • Form rocky planets and the asteroid belt
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12
Q

How did the exploration of the ocean begin in ancient times? Contrast that with more modern
oceanography.

A

Ocean exploration in ancient times began with trade. People went on the ocean to mainly trade or voyage for new land. Modern oceanography began with the HMS Challenger, the first vessel to set out on a purely scientific expedition.

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13
Q

Why were clocks so important in ocean exploration?

A

Clocks were important as they were the key to determining longitude. Since longitude was based on the Greenwich Meridian, the Greenwich time of your local noon can tell your longitude.

Clocks were a way to track what Greenwich time was and therefore to track the longitude

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14
Q

What did sailors use to determine location in regards to longitude? Latitude?

A

To determine latitude, sailors measured the positions of stars, from declination to the Pole Star.

To determine longitude, sailors used Greenwich time and it’s discrepancy from their local noon

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15
Q

List a few pieces of equipment used by current oceanographers.

A

ROVs
Clocks
Satellites
- TOPEX/Poseidon: Covers 95% of ice-free ocean every 10 days
- Jason-1: Monitors ocean/atmosphere climate interactions
- AQUA: Collects water-cycle information

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16
Q

What are the 4 main internal parts of the earth? Are they solid or liquid? Bendable or not? Rank in
order of density.

A

4 main parts of the Earth are the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core

Crust and mantle are rocky/solid, outer core is liquid, inner core is solid

Crust and inner core are not bendable; mantle and outer core are

Increasing Density: Crust, Mantle, Outer Core, Inner Core

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17
Q

What is the difference between oceanic and continental crust?

A

Oceanic crust is much thinner and is denser than continental crust; primarily composed of basalt

Continental crust is not as dense as oceanic crust and is mainly composed of granite

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18
Q

What have seismic waves told us about Earth? What is the difference between P waves and S
waves?

A

P Waves

  • Primary waves
  • Faster than S waves
  • Compressional
  • Can travel through solids, liquids, and gases

S Waves

  • Secondary waves
  • Slower than P waves
  • Shear
  • Can only travel through solids (no restoring force in other media)

Seismic waves tell us about Earth’s composition and the presence of the liquid outer core. S-waves can’t pass through the outer core and thus cast a shadow zone. P-waves cast differential shadow zones as they move/bend differently in a liquid, compared to the solid interior parts.

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19
Q

Is Earth like the rest of the Universe? Why? Why does Earth have a liquid ocean?

A

Earth is not like the rest of the universe as it is the only known planet with liquid water on the surface.

Earth has a liquid ocean because of the rapid accretion of cold/icy planetesimals in formation, outgassing of interior bringing H2O to the surface, and moderate distance from the sun allowing for water to remain liquid

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20
Q

What is the theory of continental drift and what evidence did Wegener use to support the theory?

A

Theory of continental drift states that continents move laterally across Earth, were joined as a supercontinent in the past, supercontinent had a superocean, and the supercontinent split apart 200 mya and pieces move today

Wegener used the evidence of the fit of the continents with each other, incomplete geologies of South Africa and Australia, and distribution of living organisms/fossils/paleoclimatic indicators

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21
Q

Why wasn’t the theory of continental drift originally accepted?

A
  • Lack of suitable mechanism to move continents
  • No way for continents to plow through the ocean floor
  • Wegener was meteorologist, not a geophysicist
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22
Q

What is the seafloor spreading hypothesis?

A
  • Convection cells of mantle cause mantle upswells under mid-ocean ridges
  • Lithosphere with new crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges, then spreads laterally across seafloor
  • Oceanic crust of lithosphere is dragged down at trenches and recycled into mantle
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23
Q

What lines of evidence backed up seafloor spreading?

A
  • 1970s deep sea drilling showed that age of seafloor increases regularly with distance from ridge axis
  • Sediment thickens with distance from ridge axis
  • Polarity of magnetic materials in seafloor rocks alternates and then ends at a trench
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24
Q

What is the theory of plate tectonics?

A
  • Earth’s surface consists of a small number of plates that correspond to the lithosphere
  • Lithospheric plates move over Earth’s surface by riding on the asthenosphere, powered by movement in the mantle
  • Plates interact with each other along 3 kinds of boundaries
  • Plate interactions produce most of Earth’s tectonic activity
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25
What evidence did scientists use to form the theory of plate tectonics?
- Global earthquake patterns occurring in a distinct manner - Volcano hotspots - Shape/fit of continents - Fossil record across continents
26
Understand and be able to describe: a) what happens at each type of plate boundary b) if crust is created or destroyed c) the geological features that occur at these locations d) where the boundary occurs
Constructional Plate Boundaries: - Plates move apart from one another - Crust is created from magma upswells at mid-ocean ridges - Mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys occur here - Examples include mid-Atlantic ridge and East Africa Rift Valley Destructional Plate Boundaries: - Plates move towards each other - Crust is destroyed as one plate subducts under the other - Geological features that can occur are deep sea trenches and mountain ranges - Examples include Himalayas, Andes, and where the Nazca plate subducts under the South American plate Transform Plate Boundaries; - Plates shear past one another - Crust is neither made nor destroyed - Transform faults occur as Earth is a sphere - Example is San Andreas fault between Pacific and North American plates
27
What is a supercontinent?
A supercontinent is what occurs when all of Earth's continents congregate into one large landmass
28
What is a hot spot?
Hot spots are point sources of magma that have remained fixed in one spot of the mantle for long time periods; mode of mantle upwelling
29
What are Large Igneous Provinces?
Large Igneous Provinces (LIPS) are large accumulations of igneous rocks, resulting from the large heads of mantle plumes
30
What are the global effects of LIPS?
- Raise sea level when erupting on sea floor - Raise seawater temperature - Raise atmospheric temperature - Potentially could cause mass biotic extinctions
31
Why is there a bend in the Hawaiian-Emperor Seamount chain?
The bend is caused by change in direction of the Pacific plate, as this disturbed the linear motion of the hot spot that created the chain in the first place
32
What is the principle of uniformity?
Today’s geologic features were formed in the past by the same geologic processes observed today.
33
How is the seafloor mapped? Is one method better or worse than the others?
- Echo Sounding - Multi-Beam Systems - Satellite Altimetry Multi-beam systems seem to produce the most detailed images
34
Oceanic Ridge Formation
Formed where two plates are moving apart from each other (divergent boundary Oceanic ridges are the places where new crust emerges
35
Hydrothermal Vent Formation
Magma near the seafloor heats up water under the seafloor. This causes it to be able to dissolve more metals. Once this water comes up and hits the colder surrounding water, the dissolved metals precipitate out, forming the vent around it over time.
36
Abyssal Plain Formation
Forms through accumulation of layers of sediment on the basaltic oceanic crust over time Abyssal plains are flat, featureless expanses of sediment- covered ocean floor found on the periphery of all oceans.
37
Abyssal Hill Formation
Abyssal hills form when newly formed crust moves away from the center of a ridge, stretches, and cracks. Some blocks of the crust form valleys and others remain as hills. Abyssal hills are small, sediment-covered extinct volcanoes or intrusions of once-molten rock, usually less than 200m high
38
Seamount Formation
Seamounts are volcanoes formed at or near mid-ocean ridges or at hot spots, and occur when magma forms an inactive volcano underwater
39
Guyot Formation
Guyots are flat-topped seamounts that once penetrated the water's surface, and wave-action eroded their tops to become flat
40
Trench Formation
Trenches are deep depressions in the seafloor | - They occur when a convergent oceanic plate is subducted beneath another oceanic plate
41
Island Arc Formation
Island arcs are a result of an oceanic plate being subducted under another oceanic plate and are composed of andesite Ex. Japan/Aleutian
42
Island Chain Formation
Island chains form due to hotspots and are composed of basalt Ex. Hawaiian
43
Continental Shelf Formation
Shelves are wider at passive margins as they are mainly formed by seafloor spreading. Shelves are narrower at active margins as occurring subduction narrows them.
44
Continental Slope Formation
Continental slope depth is also determined by presence of active or passive margins, like shelf formation
45
In what location would you find an active continental margin? What about a passive continental margin? What are the differences between these two margins?
- Active margins occur more frequently around the Pacific and near the edge of convergent/transform boundaries - Passive margins occur more frequently around the Atlantic and near the edge of divergent boundaries - Active margins have more earthquake activity and narrower continental shelves than passive margins
46
There are 3 main types of rocks. How is each type formed?
Igneous Rocks: Formed from magma above or below Earth's surface - Intrusive rocks formed underground, for a longer time, from magma, and have larger crystals - Extrusive rocks formed above ground, quickly, have smaller crystals, and from lava Sedimentary Rocks: Formed by sediment compaction, sediment cementation, or direct formation of crystals during evaporation of water Metamorphic Rocks: Formed from previous rocks changed by heat, pressure, and/or hot solutions
47
Distinguish between neritic and pelagic sediments
Neritic Sediment: - From continental shelves and mostly terrigenous material Pelagic Sediment: - From continental slope, rise, and deep-ocean floors; contain greater proportion of biogenous material
48
Where is sediment most rapidly deposited? Why?
Sediment is most rapidly deposited near the continents, and in particular, from areas where rivers empty into the ocean. The river water picks up sediment throughout its journey and empties into the ocean, depositing all the sediment there.
49
Understand sediment classification: size, location, source
Size: - Different sediment sizes lead to different rocks - Conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, shale (decreasing sediment size) Location: - Neritic and pelagic distinction - Most sediment is on continental margins, very little on seafloor (13%) Source: - Terrigenous (rivers, turbidity currents, wind, floating ice) - Biogenic - Volcanogenic - Cosmogenic - Calcareous ooze (CaCO3) (coccolithophores and foraminifera) - Siliceous ooze (SiO2) (radiolarians) - Authigenic (formed in place within sediment) - Hydrogenous (precipitated from seawater) - Hydrothermal (precipitated from hot water)
50
What is a turbidity current?
- Density-driven mudslides down the continental shelf (sediment avalanches underwater) - Usually caused by earthquakes - Fast moving and travel long distances - Product submarine canyons, fans, and graded deposits
51
What is CCD?
Carbonate Compensation Depth CCD is the depth at which the rate of CaCO3 supply is equal to the rate it dissolves into the water. Prevents CaCO3 accumulation in waters at or below this depth
52
What is the sediment cycle?
- Erosion - Transport - Deposition - Recycling in deep Earth
53
What causes sea level change?
Local: - Water motion - Storm surges, wind, shoreline currents - Tectonic lift or subsidence Global: - Changes in ice volume - Changes in rate of seafloor spreading - Changes in mean ocean temperature
54
Describe how humans interfere with natural beach processes
- Breakwaters are used to grow beaches - Groins trap sand from current and deprive beaches on downdrift - Seawalls protect property and increase beach erosion - Importing sand can be done but erodes more quickly than original sand
55
What is the difference between a Seamount, Guyot and Atoll?
Seamounts are volcanoes formed at or near mid-ocean ridges or at hot spots, and occur when magma forms an inactive volcano underwater Guyots are flat-topped seamounts that once penetrated the water's surface, and wave-action eroded their tops to become flat Atolls are coral reefs originally formed around an island that has no subsided, leaving just a ring-like reef structure
56
What is the Darwin Point?
Darwin Point is where atolls “drown” because coral growth can no longer keep up with subsidence of the volcanic edifice (temperature becomes too low for coral to grow at peak efficiency)
57
Understand the formation of oil/natural gas
- Tiny sea plants/animals die and get buried on the ocean floor by silt and sand - Remains get buried deeper by more layers, heat/pressure turn them into oil and gas
58
What geological resources are mined from the sea?
- Oil - Natural Gas - Diamonds - Sand - Gravel - Magnesium - Phosphorous - Manganese - Metal deposits
59
Polarity
Exhibiting two different poles of opposing charge | - Water is polar as it has a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end
60
Hydrogen Bonding
Serves to strongly hold water molecules together, enabling cohesion and adhesion - Keep water molecules together as a group - Caused by uneven distribution of charges around a molecules
61
Latent Heat
Energy used to change phase but not temperature
62
Heat Capacity
Amount of heat required to raise a substance by a given amount
63
Density
Mass per unit of volume | - How tightly packed a substance is
64
Pressure
Force per unit area
65
Describe the states of water and define under what conditions one would find each state
Water exists as a solid, liquid, and a gas - Solid water (ice) is found at conditions under 0 C - Liquid water is found between 0-100 C - Gaseous water (water vapor) is found at temperatures above 100 C
66
Know the mathematical formulation of density and the density of pure water at 4° C
Ratio of mass per unit of volume - 1g/cm^3 at 4 C
67
How is the ocean stratified?
Stratified by temperature, density, and salinity
68
Why is the ocean stratified?
Ocean is stratified due to global differences in temperature and salinity - Sunlight only warms the top layers of ocean water - Salinity differences come from differences in precipitation and evaporation rates and differing inflow of salts to different waters
69
Why are there seasons?
Seasons come from the incoming solar radiation changing in its intensity as Earth orbits around the sun, and due to its axial tilt
70
What is a pycnocline, halocline, and thermocline?
Pycnocline - Where density increases the most rapidly with depth Halocline - Where salinity stabilizes/settles the most with depth Thermocline - Where temperature declines the most with depth
71
Explain the global variation in ocean temperature and salinity.
- Temperature of regions and the year-long sunlight exposure they get affects water temperature - Salinity differences come from differences in precipitation and evaporation rates
72
Demonstrate the ability to interpret T-S diagrams.
Read corresponding lines of salinity and temperature of arrive at an estimate for water density
73
Draw idealized temperature and density profiles in the open ocean at the equator, mid-latitudes and the poles in summer and winter
Equator will have steeper changes from surface to deep water in temp and density compared to mid-latitudes, which will have the same difference when compared to poles in winter. Poles in summer may be on par with equator/mid-latitudes in this change
74
Understand the 4 ways waves can interact with matter
- Reflection (bounce off) - Refraction (bending) - Scattering (random reflection) - Absorption
75
What controls the speed of sound in the ocean?
Speed of sound is controlled by temperature and pressure - Speed varies with depth - Sound fastest in high temp, slowest in low temp - Fastest in high pressure, slowest in low pressure Contrasting conditions means it varies with depth
76
What is PAR?
PAR is the range of solar radiation that organisms can utilize towards photosynthesis
77
Why is the ocean blue?
The ocean is blue as blue light can travel through the water far enough to be scattered back through the surface to our eyes.
78
What is the SOFAR layer?
SOFAR is the low-velocity layer of water in which sound waves continuously refract back into, trapping them
79
What is a shadow zone?
This is the fastest-sound layer, as since the sound is stuck refracting into the slowest-sound layer, sound always bends away from this zone, making it a shadow
80
What is the Principle of Constant Proportions?
Regardless of how the salinity may vary from place to place, the ratios between the amounts of the major ions in the waters of the open ocean are nearly constant
81
What are the 6 major ions dissolved in seawater?
Cl (-), Na (+), Mg( 2-), SO4 (2-), Ca (2+), and K (+)
82
What is a residence time and how do residence times relate to the quantity of ions in the ocean?
Residence time is the average length of time an element spends in the ocean Residence times tell us that ions that are inefficiently removed spend a lot of time in the ocean while those that are efficiently removed do not
83
What is the difference between a conservative and a non-conservative ion?
Conservative ions have residence times of millions of years and these are longer than ocean mixing times Non-conservative ions are more active (biologically or chemically) and actively removed from ocean water
84
What minor ions are important in the ocean? Why?
HCO3 (-), Br (-), Sr (2+), H2BO3, F (-) | - Contribute to the salinity of the ocean and are used extensively by marine life
85
Where does ocean salt come from? Is the salinity of the ocean increasing?
Ocean salt comes from evaporation effects, rivers carrying salts to sea, and from volcanoes adding salts Ocean salinity is not increasing as it is in chemical equilibrium (ions are added/removed at same rate) - Amount/proportion of dissolved ions is constant
86
What limits growth in the marine food chain? What is a limiting nutrient?
A limiting nutrient is an essential nutrient that limits growth if missing Limiting Growth in Marine Food Chain --> Food: - Nitrogen - Phosphorous - Iron - Calcium - Silicon - Magnesium - Carbon
87
There are plenty of nutrients in some places, but none in others. Why?
- Proportion of gases in ocean can differ due to solubility and biology - Nitrogen needs to be fixed by cyanobacteria - Rivers and rain bring in phosphorous; doesn't occur equally everywhere - Dust from continents brings iron; not everywhere is close to land
88
Other than the conservative ions, almost everything changes with depth in the ocean. Why?
Temperature and salinity differences in the ocean cause things to change to different depths
89
Draw O2 and CO2 profiles
O2 - Higher at surface as photosynthetic organisms release it as waste but lower down is used as fuel so less is available (higher at surface, lower at depth) CO2 - Higher at surface is used as a fuel but lower down it is a waste product (lower at surface, higher at depth)
90
Understand pH
- pH measures concentration of hydrogen ions in solution - -log[H+] - Logarithmic scale - <7 = acidic - >7 = basic The carbonic acid-bicarbonate-carbonate system of the ocean works as a buffer; making it hard to alter ocean pH
91
What is the nutrient cycle?
The nutrient cycle is the process by which nutrients used by biological organisms get recycled into the natural environment
92
What is chemosynthesis? Why is it important?
Chemosynthesis is the process of using inorganic chemical reactions to create organic molecules - Important because it allows organisms at hydrothermal vents to make high-energy organic molecules and rids the ocean floor of poisonous H2S
93
What is the difference between photosynthesis and respiration?
Photosynthesis consumes CO2 and it used by organisms that make their own food through sunlight Respiration emits CO2 and is used by organisms that convert food to energy
94
What happens to seawater at hydrothermal vents?
Seawater gets heated and has its chemistry changed at hydrothermal vents It dissolves sulfides, magnesium minerals, Fe (3+), Ca (2+), Cu (2+), and Zn (2+) These solids later precipitate as "black smoke" once this water remixes with seawater
95
Where do tubeworms get their energy?
Tubeworms use chemosynthesis to get carbohydrates from the hydrogen sulfide the vents give along with O2 and CO2 in the water
96
Where do we find hydrothermal vents? Why?
Hydrothermal vents are found in areas where magma is near the surface, as this allows it to heat up the water. Once the hot water picks up other metals in solution, which precipitate out once it reaches cold ocean water, forming the vent over time
97
Compare climate and weather
Climate is the average or prevailing weather conditions in an area. Weather is the state of the atmosphere (e.g. temperature, precipitation) at a specific location and at a specific time.
98
What is the Coriolis effect?
The observed deflection of a moving object, caused by the moving frame of reference on the spinning Earth.
99
Understand convection in the atmosphere.
Polar Cells: Nearest to poles Ferrel Cells: Occur at mid-latitudes Hadley Cells: Near equator Storms only occur at the Polar/Ferrel boundaries and between the Hadley Cells; this is because at these boundaries both cells push warm moist air up to create clouds. At other boundaries, cold dry air is pushed down and no storms form
100
What factors govern the global circulation of air?
Pressure-Gradient Force: - Moves air (or water) from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure - Moves down isobars (lines showing areas of same pressure) like a ball rolling down a hill Coriolis Effect - Causes deflection of particle path and dictates the direction that air spins around regions of high and low pressure
101
How is heat transferred from the ocean to the atmosphere?
Ocean water can heat up the atmosphere when the atmosphere is colder and in contact with the ocean water through conduction.
102
What is Eckman transport?
Eckman transport is when wind blows and exerts frictional drag on water; result is net water movement 90 degrees to the right of wind direction
103
What are the differences between eastern and western boundary currents? Why?
Eastern Boundary Currents: - Broad and shallow - Slow - Small Western Boundary Currents: - Narrow and deep - Swift - Large Coriolis effect intensifies Western current in the Northern hemisphere leading to the difference
104
What are core rings?
Core rings are eddies that either have a core of warm or cold water
105
How are hurricanes formed?
Hurricanes form over warm water, as this creates the warm air that rises to make clouds. Latent heat is released and causes and updraft by warming the cloud. Air getting sucked into the hurricane intensifies the phenomenon.
106
Why are upwelling and downwelling important for coastal systems?
Upwelling occurs where Ekman transport moves surface waters away from the coast and they are replaced by cold, nutrient‐rich water welling up from below Downwelling occurs where is where Ekman transport moves surface waters toward the coast, the water piles up and sinks
107
Describe the characteristics of the mixed layer, pycnocline and deep ocean layers.
Mixed layer contains many different types of water of differing characteristics Pycnocline represents a sharp increase in the density of the water Deep ocean layer is beyond the pycnocline where all of the water is much denser than the water above the pycnocline
108
Contrast the definitions of “thermocline” and “halocline”
Thermocline is the region of ocean after which there is sharp drop in the water temperature Halocline is the region of ocean after which there is a sharp drop in the water salinity
109
Trace water masses in the Atlantic Ocean basin.
Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) makes up the bottom layer; coming in from the South North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) makes up the layer above AABW; coming from the North Above NADW is intermediate water Above intermediate water is the thermocline and surface water near the equator
110
Define the term “Thermohaline circulation” and describe its role in the Earth’s heat balance.
In North Atlantic: Surface warm Gulf Stream flowing north Cold Deep Boundary Current toward equator Thermohaline circulation transports heat energy around the globe and is key in supplying heat to polar regions
111
Explain the factors that support the ocean’s vertical stability.
Stability of the pycnocline along with the thermohaline circulation around the globe maintain the ocean's vertical stability
112
NADW Formation
Complex of several water masses formed by deep convection
113
MIW Formation
Strait of Gibraltar prevents mixing/dilution with Atlantic and river runoff concentrates the salinity
114
AABW Formation
Formed from upwelled NADW
115
CDW Formation
Mix of AABW, AAIW, and NADW

EPS N82 (2 decks)

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