midterms again except this time cymbalta is kicking my ass even more Flashcards
GRABBING CYMBALTA BY THE FUCKING NECK BECAUSE I MIGHT HAVE BRAIN ZAPS AND A SHITTY MEMORY BUT THE ASIAN IN ME NEEDS THE 4. FUCKNG 0!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! (155 cards)
1
Q
Where is GnRH made
A
hypothalamus
2
Q
What does LH do where is it made
A
anterior pituitary, it acts on endocrine cells to make steroid and peptide hormones. ONLY IN FEMALE it contributes to gamete production
3
Q
What does FSH do where is it made
A
Gamete production made in anterior pituitary
4
Q
What does high GnRH pulses do, opposite?
A
LH secretion for high. FSH for low. pulses needed for reproductive function.
5
Q
Sertoli cells
A
gie sperm nutrients and remove waste. are packed close to the spermatids and shit
6
Q
leydig cells
A
make t
7
Q
spermatogenesis
A
spermatogonia form during fetal development. 2n spermatogonia split to make primary spermatocytes which are also 2n. secondary spermatocytes also 2n. Spermatids are n and so are spermatozoa (they are the mfs with the tails)
8
Q
blood testis barrier
A
weird shit on sperm surface makes it look wonky so you need a barrier by tight junctions so its not attacked
9
Q
Acrosome
A
comes from golgi, has hyalyronsidase and acrosin which breaks down the zona pellucida (glycoprotein that covers oocyte)
10
Q
semen composition
A
water, lubricant (mucus), buffers to neutralize acid, nutrients, enzymes, zinc, prostaglandins
11
Q
FSH regulation
A
makes inhibin that make cell products which makes inhibin that negatively regulates FSH.
12
Q
LH regulation
A
LH acts on leydig cells which make T, which negatively regulates GnRH
13
Q
FSH purposes for XY
A
sperm deveopment, secrete androgen binding protein to bring more androgens to testis
14
Q
LH purposes for XY
A
stimulates leydig cells which make T
15
Q
LH and FSH cycle throughout XY life
A
go up and down prenatally, low during childhood, increases in puberty (basically like T)
16
Q
AMH (anti mullerian not malarian!) cycle throughout XY life
A
high to low from childhood to puberty
17
Q
XY hypogonadism symptoms (for both types)
A
decreased activity of testes, low androgens inhibin B, low AMH, low sperm production
18
Q
primary hypogonadism
A
high GnRH, LH, FSH, low T due to genetics injury, inflammation in testes. Solution exogenous testosterone (not me pretending to have this to get my fucking T)
19
Q
secondary hypogonadism
A
hypothalamus/anterior pituitary gland damaged. LOW EVERYTHING BITCH. treatment include gonadotropin therapy
20
Q
DHT (di hydro T)
A
male pattern balding and prostate growth 5- a reductase inhibitors can treat prostate enlargement and baldness
21
Q
testosterone effects
A
more sperm. prostate and seminal vesicle secretion. maintains reproductive tract, increases sex drive, negative feedback on GnRH, LH, FSH, male pattern hair growth, muscle, sebaceous gland secretion, protein making, aggression, more blood
22
Q
oogenesis
A
oogonium go through mitosis to make diploid oogonia. before birth, oogonia enter meiosis I. you are born with primary oocyte and stuck with it until you get ur period.
23
Q
ovulation
A
release primary oocyte from meiosis 1 and put it into meiosis II. now secondary oocyte. THIS IS THE FIRST INSTANCE OF HAPLOIDY. increase LH. increase progesterone (smooth muscle contraction). increase collagenase (to dissolve connective tissue). oocyte and cumulus cells yeeted into gap, picked up by fimbria.
24
Q
Thecal cells
A
make steroid hormone precursors (i.e. androgens)
25
ovarian cycle: follicular phase
days 1-14. one dominant follical matures. antrums form in secondary. antral fluids have estrogen and enzymes
26
ovarian cycle: luteal phase
left behind follicular cells from follicular phase become corpus luteum. releases progesterone and estrogen. when no fertilization, corpus luteum degenerates to form corpus albicans.
27
corpus luteum when fertilization does what
makes progesterone + estrogen until end of first trimester.
28
uterine cycle: menses
menses (days 1-5) decreases progesterone, estrogen. causes endometrium blood vessel constriction, shedding of endometrium lining.
29
uterine cycle: proliferative
5-14 tissue of endometrium grow, high estrogen
30
uterine cycle: secretory phase
14-28 glands in endometrium makes more viscous fluid endometrial cells deposit lipid and glycogen in cytoplasm due to progesterone and estrogen
31
LH ovarian cycle effects early follicular
LH make theca cells release androgens.
32
FSH ovarian cycle effects early follicular
FSH makes granulosa cells convert androgens into estrogens
33
AMH ovarian cycle effects early follicular
granulosa cells secrete AMH so you don't recruit more follicles
34
early follicular phase estrogen
positive loop around granulosa cells, makes more and more E. shuts doen FSH LH GnRH
35
late follicular phase and ovulation follicles
you now have a tertiary follicle
36
late follicular and ovulation hormones secreted
inhibin (inhibits FSH), progesterone (increases sensitivity to GnRH) and estrogen
37
high estrogen effect on GnRH
pulses every 65 min (positive feedback), causing LH surge to trigger ovulation
38
corpus luteum when LH and FSH
progesterone, inhibin, estrogen (negative on hypothalamus, pituitary)
39
progesterone and estrogen on GnRH pulses
now one every 3-4 hr
40
corpus luteum late luteal phase
gets fertilized or dies (12 days lifespan). if dies, progesterone and estrogen levels fall, so GnRH returns to one every 1.5 hr (LH and FSH release)
41
what do pregnancy tests detect
hCG
42
Estrogen effects
follicular development, ovulation, growth of endometrium, reproductive tract. negative on the H gang. boobs, ass thighsa
43
androgens on adult female
hairy n horny???
44
menopause hormone
low estradiol and progestrone. high FSH, LH, but ovaries cannot respond to it
45
capacitation
sperm becomes hyperactive, albumin, enzymes, lipoproteins bind to sperm remove glycoprotein coat, cuase intracellular changes to get the jizz through muc lmfao
46
what helps jizz gets where it needs to go
uterine and oviduct contractions, estrogens and prostaglandins in semen.
47
oocyte viability
1 day
48
spermatozoa viability
4-6 days
49
fertilization
about 100 sperm get there, guided by chemotaxis (progesterone from cumulus cells). sperm tunnel through barriers w/ acrosomal enzymes, dock w/ sperm binding proteins. oocyte depolarizes, oocyte then blocks other sperm
50
why is joker x batman good
because evil green man. insanity, murder, blood everywhere yipeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
51
after fertilization timeline
day 1: fertilization
2-4: cell division
4-5: blastocyst reaches uterus
5-9: blastocyst implants (blastocyst eventually becomes embryo)
52
hCG
takes from pituitary to maintain corpus luteum, prevent menstruation. similar to LH. muy importante!!!!!!! stimulates fetal testis (helps it get a pp)
53
placenta
digestive, respiratory, renal systems for fetus. waste, nutrients, O2, CO2, proteins/chemicals
54
placenta circulation
mother's blood not directly connected to fetus, mother's blood forms a lake. fetal chorionic villi transfer gases and solutes between mother and fetus
55
progesterone for placental hormone
supresses cervical contractions, cervical plug, mammary gland development. first 2 so you don't squish the baby lmfaooooooo
56
estrogen for placental hormone
uterine development (growth of placenta, blood supply, oxytocin receptor), breast duct development
57
human placental lactogen
high in mother, lower in fetus. similar to growth hormone and prolactin. lowers maternal cellular uptake of glucose and maternal lipolysis to give baby energy from mother's reserve
58
terms of pregnancy
first trimester: first week after last period. preterm: born >28 weeks, usually don't need invervention, early need ICU because lungs not developed
59
maternal adaptations for pregnancy
increased vasopressin levels increase blood volume, increase fluid retention for more blood. boost cardiovascular system, lower immune system (something new, don't want it to be attacked). increase PTH to move calcium to fetus. calcitonin to prevent too much bone loss.
60
triggering labor
relaxin released from ovary. placenta loosens ligaments in pelvic bone, softens cervix. cervical stretch has positive feedback
61
before parturition
estrogens and progesterone needed for mammary glands but inhibit milk production just yet
62
after parturition
oxytocin goes to myoepithelial cells, squeezes the epithelial milk making cells which are activated by prolactin.
63
child crying does what
decreases PIH (prolactin inhibiting hormone), increases prolactin and oxytocin
64
bipotential primordium
6 weeks. mullerian duct can become fallopian tube, uterus, upper vagina. wolffian duct can become epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle
65
fetal develop of XX
gonadal cortex becomes ovary when there is no SRY gene. wolffian duct gone cuz no T. mullerian duct becomes fallopian tube, uterus, upper vagin
66
SF1 and SRY
SF1 is a transcription factor that activates SRY gene which makes AMH to supress female characteristics.
67
SOX9 in fetus
initiate Sertoli cell differentiation. cellular events downstream form testis structure
68
Development of XY in fetus
sry protein causes gonadal medulla to form testis, gonadal cortex regresses. AMH makes Mullerian ducts go away, T turns Wolffian duct. With testis, Leydig cells make T, some converted to DHT for male genitalia.
69
common XX hormones in fetus
B catenin stops SOX-9 cuz no Sertoli. No AMH/T
70
Xy with complete androgen insensitivty
undescended testes not visible at birth. external closed vagina. high androgens converted to estrogens. breasts but no hair. high in LH
71
metabolism
sum of chem rxns in body
72
anabolic
small molecules become bigger ones. like using glucose for energy, building bigger molecules
73
catabolic
large molecules become small ones. fasted states 3-4 hrs after eating. using glucose and fat for energy
74
glut2
kent is pathetic liar: kidney, intestines, pancreas liver. glucose transport, secrete insulin. glut 2 always there regardless of insulin
75
glut4
adipose and skeletal. insulin dependent, transporters exocytosed when fed, or working out, letting glucose in
76
insulin
dominant hormone of fed state, synthesized as typical peptide. binds to tyrosine kinase. forms glycogen, fat, protein
77
glut 2 regulation
insulin activates hexokinase, phosphorylating glucose. more glucose in
78
GIP-1
released by K cells in small intestine when nutrients are in lumen. B pancrea cells bind to GIP 1 release insulin
79
GLP-1
same as GIP, except its by L cells and can be in large intestine. stay full longer. glucose release lowered, slower gastric emptying. more beta cells, increase insulin. cardioprotective
80
glucagon
pancreatic a cells. prevent 低血糖. large peptide protein. in response to starvation, glucagon binds to receptor and makes shit ton of glucose in liver. glucose diffuses into blood by passive diffusion
81
cortisol on glucagon and einephrine
permissive effect
82
glucacon secretion
low plasma glucose, high plasma amino acid so insulin doesn't yoink too much glucose
83
proglucagon
in a pancrea cells, mostly makes glucagon. in L intestine/brain cells, mostly makes GLP 1 and 2
84
type 1 diabetes
low/no insulin secretion, 10% of all diabetes. starts young, need insulin injections/pumps. body thinks its starving. breaks glycogen stores to increas eblood sugar, urinate lots of glucose, low blood volume, increasing ADH. pissing a lot. high osmolarity. fat/protein breakdown because no usable glucose, causing acidosis (which causes hyperventilation and ab pain)
85
type 2 diabetes
90% mature onset, chronic high sugar, insensitivity to insulin. treated by diet and exercise, oral hypoglycemics. sulfonylureases close Katp which cause cell depolarization, meaning shit ton of Ca2+ in, exocytoses insulin
86
Posterior pituitary
neural tissue, secretes 2 neurohormones (ADH and oxytocin). hypothalamus sends shit down. not actually endocrine
87
anterior pituitary
endocrine tissue. makes prolactin, thyrotropin, adrenocorticotropin, GH, FSH, LH. hypothalamus sends neurohormones (like GnRH) into portal system, endocrine then send second set.
88
Ossification
need osteoblasts. when cartilage gets turned to bone (osteoblasts replace chondrocytes, laying new bone, causing bone growth)
89
GH (growth hormone)
from AP, stimulated by GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone) from hypothalamus and somatostatin, IGF (insulin like growth factors) which MAKES EVERYTHING FUCKING GROW BITTTTTTTTTTTTCH
90
growth hormone catabolic shit
stimulates adipose cells to break down stored fat. increases uptake of amino acids from blood, decreases cell death. targets bone, muscle, nervous, immune. stimulates liver to break glycogen into glucose (gluconeogenesis)
91
things that affect growth
diet, genetics, hormones, GH and IGFs, thyroid hormones, insulin (more glucose for growth), sex hormones, cortisol (catabolize tissue for growth)
92
TSH
from anterior pituitary, after TRH
93
T3 and T4
T3 3-5x more potent. in blood bound to plasma proteins. both bound to nuclear thyroud receptors. increase metabolic rate, O2 consumption, heat production, protein degradation, lipolysis. boosts speech, thinking reflexes. works with GH in kids. increases heart rate, heart contraction, peripheral blood flow, beta adrenogenic receptors. too much causes muscular weakness
94
hyperthyroidism
caued by tumors, thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (grave's disease). symptoms include goiter, nervousness, insomnia, anxiety, bulging eyes, high heart rate, weight loss. treated by blocking part of thyroid, blocking synthesis of T3/T4 or conversion of T4 to T3
95
grave's disease
antibodies that pretend to be TSH, making a shit ton of thyroid hormones. most common cause of thyroid enlargement in developed countries
96
hypothyroidism
lack of iodine or underactive thyroid gland. goiter, slow heart rate, slow speech, fatigue, cold intolerance, cretinism, stunted growth. treated with exogenous T4.
97
iodine deficiency
stops T3 and T4 from being made so high TSH TRH
98
Brain, spinal cord, enteric nervous sys. neuron number
brain 86 bil, spinal cord 1 bil. enteric nervous system 100-600 mil
99
grey matter
nerve cell bodies, unmyelinated axons, dendrites. in layers or clusters called nuclei
100
white matter
myelinated axons running in bundles called tracts
101
(PNS) ganglia
clusters of neurons
102
(PNS) nerves
bundles of axons
103
why is brain greedy asf
2% mass, 15% blood, half of body's glucose. only support 4% neurons working
104
Dorsal root of spinal cord
incoming sensory info, close to somatic sensory nuclei (skin) and visceral sensory nuclei (heart, stomach)
105
Ventral root of spinal cord
leaving motor info. close to autonomic efferent nuclei (glands, smooth). somatic motor nuclei (skeletal)
106
ascending tracts, descending tracts
ascending: sensory to brain, mostly dorsal. vice versa
107
propriospinal tracts
stay in spinal cord
108
brainstem
medulla, pons, midbrain. breathing, swallowing, vomiting, blood pressure
109
cranial nerves
nerves that leave/enter brain but aren't brainstem
110
diencephalon
thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal.
111
cerebral grey matter
contains cortex, limbic, basal ganglia (movement)
112
left hemi
speech, writing, language, math
113
right hemi
analysis by touch, spatial analysis
114
limbic system
cingulate gyrus, amygdala, hippocampus. motivation, emotion, memory.
115
4 somatic senses
touch, temp, proprioception, nociception
116
Receptors
sometimes neurons sometimes non-neuronal epithelial cells. graded potentials usually, unless it's a neuron, then it can fire APs
117
types of receptors
chemo, mechano, thermo, photo
118
receptor potential
photoreceptors can see a single photon of light
119
perceptual threashold
how much you need to actually consciously notice
120
phasic
respond to change, then stop firing (e.g. retinal cels)
121
tonic
signal present level
122
spatial change
create edges. for example wih pressure, lateral inhibition uses tertiary neurons to block each other and shit uhhh
123
what doesn't go through thalamus
olfactory
124
zonules
shit that holds lens in place
125
vitreous body
jelly of eyeball
126
cornea
bulge at front of eyeball continuous with schlera
127
ring shaped pupillary constrictor muscle
responds to parasympathetic signals from brain in bright light, shrinking pupil. vice versa when it is dark, except its dilator muscle
128
can you focus with pupils no lens
yeah
129
constricted pupils means what depth of field
full depth of field. see everything. dilated pupils means see stuff at given distance
130
how to focus when dilated pupil
bigger hole means brighter and blurrier. use refraction.
131
lens role in refraction
1/3 of refraction but can change shape. made of clear cells and packed with crystallin proteins in concentric layers.
132
angle of incidence
angle at which the light gets in.
133
rounder lens means focus what
focus closer. parasympathetic nerve signals contract ring shaped siliary and reduces tension, lens becomes round
134
nearest point of accomodation
cloest point a person can focus
135
presbyopia
lens stiffening as you get old. fucks with accomodation
136
hyperopia
focal point falls behind retina. solved by convex lens
137
myopia
nearsightedness, vice versa of hyperopia
138
Outer segment of rods and cones
disc like with pigments that respond to light
139
Inner segment and basal segment
inner: nucleus and organelles for protein synth. basal: glutamate.
140
What happens when light hits photoreceptors
hyperpolarizes due to pigments, decreases glutamate release. photoreceptors most active in dark
141
macula
central disc with shit ton of photoreceptors
142
cones
color vision, less sens. in fovea
143
rods
low light, dark adapt 30 min. rhodopsin.
144
bipolar cells
may connect 45 photoreceptors. need contrast. 126 mil photoreceptors to 1 mil ganglion.
145
centre surround
receptive field that is excited when it is lit in the middle
146
retinal ganglion cells
also detect contrast with center surround receptive fields. find contrast, do fire action potentials
147
importance of ganglion location
near fovea, gets input from few photoreceptors, but very clear. vice versa.
148
M cells
large, magnocellular. movement of objects, phasic, 10% of ganglion cells
149
P cells
parvocellular, small. fine detail and texture, 70% of ganglion
150
melanopsin
photoreceptors with own pigment, melanopsin. projects onto suprechiasmatic nucleus for circadian rhythsm. IS A PHOTORECEPTOR
151
2LGN has how many neurons
2 mil neuron. about same as 2 retinas ganglion cells
152
draw the optic nerve and where it projects
check your notes you idiot
153
sperm production
in testis, optimal at 2-3 degrees below body temp, about 64 days, 200 million a day, mature in epididymis
154
how many vas deferens
2
155
how many seminal vesicles
2
