Migrants in Britain c800-Present Content Flashcards
(128 cards)
1
Q
What groups of people migrated in Medieval England/The Middle Ages (800-1500)?
A
Vikings, Normans, Jews and Skilled workers from Europe.
2
Q
Why were people enticed by England in the 9th century?
A
England had rich mineral deposits of lead and iron, copper, tin and silver. Valuable to construct buildings and to make tools, weapons, jewellery, and other objects.
Fertile land, especially in the east and south, meant crops grew well. Sheep produced high-quality wool essential for cloth making.
Trade routes inland and with Europe were well established.
3
Q
When did England become a Christian country?
A
England gradually adopted Christianity. By 1066, it was a Christian country.
4
Q
Who was the first King of all England how long did he reign?
A
Athelstan who reigned from 925 to 939. Meaning before these years (Vikings only) England’s kingdoms were ruled separately.
5
Q
What were the important Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of 9th-century England?
A
Northumbria, Merica, Wessex, Kent and East Anglia.
6
Q
Who were the Vikings, 700-1100?
A
People of Scandinavian origin who raided, pirated, traded and settled throughout parts of Europe and beyond who travelled by longboat.
7
Q
What were Monasteries?
A
A building, or buildings, where people lived and worshiped, devoting their time and life to god.
8
Q
Why did the Vikings migrate to England?
A
To get riches and slaves which they wanted to bring back to their home countries.
9
Q
What did the Vikings do during the 800s?
A
From the late 700s to c865 Vikings raided England and Scotland, attacking villages and towns and monasteries and abbeys that were close to the coast.
They did this because they wanted the treasure held in monasteries and abbeys; the goods stored in merchants’ warehouses; the ransoms they could demand to return captured people.
10
Q
What was significant about 865 for the Vikings?
A
The Viking Great Army landed in East Anglia. The Vikings wanted to settle in England because they knew the fertile soils would provide the land they needed.
11
Q
What was significant about the Vikings in 866?
A
The Vikings captured York and used it as a base for defeating the Kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia and Mercia. Wessex was the final Saxon Kingdom untouched by the Vikings.
12
Q
What did the Vikings and the King of West Saxons agree on in 878?
A
Alfred of Wessex, the King of West Saxons and Guthrum, the leader of the Vikings, agreed on the Treaty of Wedmore.
This established that the Viking migrants now controlled a large part of England and ran it using their own laws - this was called the Danelaw.
13
Q
Who were the Normans?
A
Originally Vikings who settled in Northern France in AD900 more specifically Normandy.
14
Q
Why did the Normans migrate to Britain?
A
They invaded England in 1066. Led by Duke William.
15
Q
Why did the Normans want to conquer and rule England their way?
A
They believed Duke William had been promised the English throne by both Edward the Confessor and Harold Godwinson. However, when Edward died, Harold became King.
They received the support of the pope, who backed the invasion because of what he believed were broken promises.
England’s wealth, fertile soil and trading links made it an attractive place to settle.
16
Q
What happened due to the Battle of Hastings, 1066?
A
William and his Norman army defeated Harold Godwinson’s Saxon army. William was crowned King of England on the 25th December 1066.
Norman nobles and merchants then migrated to England to gain land and to take advantage of the trade routes developed by the Saxons and the Vikings.
17
Q
Why did Jews migrate to Britain, 1070?
A
William - the Norman King - needed a great deal of money, mainly to build castles and cathedrals. Christians did not lend money because, under Church rules, they were not allowed to charge interest.
William turned to the Jews in Normandy whom he had previously borrowed money. Jews were allowed to charge interest on loans - this was called usury and was regarded as a sin by the Catholic Church.
A group of Jewish merchants decided to lend William the money. In 1070, invited by William, they arrived in London, and were given ‘special status’ as ‘the property of the king’. Their families soon followed and they established a small community in London.
18
Q
Why did Skilled workers from Europe migrate to Britain, 800-1500?
A
The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) disrupted work and trade, especially in France. However, England was a stable country where workers with skills could do well.
The Black Death killed 30% to 40% of England’s population from 1348-1351. Due to this plenty of both skilled and unskilled work was available in England as well as the chance to set up new businesses.
Henry III wanted to replace Jewish moneylenders with Christians because anti-Semitic attitudes were becoming common. He invited powerful Italian banking families to England. In the 1220s the Bardi and Riccardi families moved to London to work as bankers under royal protection.
19
Q
What was life like for the Vikings in Britain?
A
Vikings settled lives in the Danelaw. They set up their own shops, markets and workshops, and built their own houses. Some grew rich because of trading links developed with Europe.
Relations between the Vikings and the Saxons were generally good. However, for settled Vikings (known as Danes) living near the boundary of the Danelaw, fighting the Saxons was an everyday experience.
Relations became worse after the Danelaw was brought under Saxon control 937. The Danes began raiding again and Viking settlers were sometimes attacked by Saxons.
Eventually, in 1016, Cnut became the first Danish king of England. Relations improved, at least partly because Cnut set up new earldoms, giving a few Saxon nobles very large areas of land.
20
Q
What was life like for the Normans in Britain?
A
Most Normans regularly experienced hostility and resentment from the Saxons. This was due partly to the cruelty with which the Norman army crushed rebellions in the West Country, East Anglia and the north of England. Another reason was that the Saxons were forced to build castles for the Normans, sometimes having to destroy large areas of towns.
The feudal system ensured that the Normans as barons, bishops and knights, held positions of authority over the Saxons.
Land in England was now totally owned by the Norman king. He kept some for himself, some to the Church, and then shared most of the rest with loyal Norman nobles. They used the land for growing crops and benefiting animals.
21
Q
What was life like for Jews in Britain, post 1070?
A
They were kept safe by monarchs who they lent money to. Allowing them to shelter in castles during dangerous times.
Were well-respected in local communities for many years because of the financial support they gave to small businesses.
Increasingly experienced anti-Semitism as people began to resent paying interest on loans. Interest rates were high to cover the taxes Jews had to pay.
In 1275 King Edward I introduced the Statute of Jewry made Jews wear a yellow armband. It also meant Jews were forbidden from charging interest on loans. Many Jews became desperately poor.
In 1290 Jews were expelled from England entirely by King Edward I.
22
Q
What was life like for skilled migrants from Europe?
A
Flemish weavers had specialised skills that English weavers didn’t have. They were welcomed because they taught their skills to the English weavers and helped the cloth trade to flourish and employment to increase.
Hansa merchants from Germany were given the right to trade in England by Edward I. They set up the Steelyard in London, from which they directed and controlled trade with the Hanseatic League and other parts of Europe. By the mid-1400s, German merchants controlled most of the English cloth industry.
Lombardy bankers - from 1220 there were powerful Italian banking families working in London. They did well, especially after the expulsion of Jewish people in 1290 and even after Edward III stopped repaying their loans.
23
Q
What was problem the Hansa merchants faced in, 1381?
A
In difficult times, the English people turned on migrants. The Peasants’ Revolt in 1381, about 150 migrants were murdered and the Hansa Steelyard was burned down. Craft guilds regularly complained that ‘foreigners’ were taking work from them/
24
Q
What Impact did the Vikings have on government?
A
They introduced Danelaw which introduced Things, where members voted on laws. Things were also law courts and members agreed on a punishment for those they found guilty.
25
What impacts did the Normans have on the government?
Normans developed the Saxon system of a government into an established parliament with lords and commons.
They created Forest Laws where the king controlled who could hunt.
The Normans also introduced the 'murdrum' which was a fine paid by Saxons if a Norman was murdered and the culprit wasn't found.
In 1370: Letters of denization gave individual migrants the same rights as English people. In 1440: Parliament levied a tax on 'aliens', defined legally as first-generation migrants.
26
What impact did the Normans have on the Church?
The Normans built thousands of churches, cathedrals and monasteries.
The number of monks and nuns increased 400% between 1066 and 1500.
Saxon bishops and archbishops were removed and replaced by Normans.
27
What impact did Vikings have on the built environment?
Viking raids led Saxons to develop burhs (burgs) - fortified towns.
28
What impact did Normans have on the built environment?
Normans built castles and cathedrals from stone and replaced wooden churches with stone ones.
29
What impact did skilled Europeans have on the built environment?
Towns, mainly East Anglia, grew and developed because the Flemish weavers settled there.
Ports grew, especially London and Kings Lynn, building wharves and warehouses because of the Hansa merchants (traders from Germany)
30
What impact did the Vikings have on culture?
Vikings brought over their own religion the Norse paganism that mixed with the Anglo-Saxon's Christianity.
31
How did the Weavers impact trade in Britain?
England's economy changed from being based on raw materials to one based on manufactured.
Merchants traded goods in Europe, particularly with Hansa merchants. They grew rich and invested their money in banks and began to turn England into a key trading centre.
Lombardy bankers in turn loaned money to finance trade and to help pay for buildings such as castles, warehouses and banks. They also lent money to monarchs for military campaigns. They began to turn London into a financial hub.
32
Why did the Vikings make a settlement at York, 866? (Case Study)
It was the centre of Anglo-Saxon government in the north and had the only mint in northern England.
It was surrounded by fertile land and it had good trade routes inland and overseas.
Viking raiders often targeted York because of its wealth.
33
What impact did the Vikings have on York?
York grew under the Vikings. The Anglo-Saxon population was about 1,000. 10,000-15,000 migrated to York under the Vikings. It became multicultural.
Hundreds of houses and workshops were built.
Skilled migrants worked on many different areas and trade flourished.
34
What impact did the Vikings have on the Church in York?
The Vikings kept the stone Saxon church in York, later called York Minister; other churches were built in Viking settlements outside York.
Many Viking kings converted to Christianity and King Guthrum was buried in York Minister.
35
How were relations between Vikings and Anglo-Saxons like?
Saxons and Vikings generally lived peacefully although the Saxons tried to push Vikings out of York initially in 867.
It was different for their rulers, however, and fighting was common.
36
What groups of people migrated during Early modern England, 1500-1700?
Huguenots, Jews, 'Gypsies', Indians and Africans. Palatines as well who fall under both 1500-1700 and 1700-1900 despite migrating in 1709.
37
What were the changes in religion from 1500-1700?
At the start of the 1500s, England was a Catholic country. It switched from Catholic/Protestant numerous times causing a lot of religious division.
38
Why did Huguenots migrate to Britain, 1500-1700?
They were Protestants who left France twice because they were persecuted by Catholic authorities. (1550-1572 and 1670-1710)
One example was the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre 1572 where there was a targeted group of assassinations and wave of violence by the Catholic mob against Huguenots.
In 1685 King Louis XVI banned protestantism. 50,000 Huguenots arrived between 1670-1710, because King Charles offered them 'denizen' status.
Many were skilled craftworkers. They wanted to set up businesses and trade, and many settled in areas where relatives had already become successful.
39
Why did Jews migrate to Britain, 1500-1700?
Some Jews remained in England even after their expulsion in 1290. Outwardly, they converted to Christianity but privately followed their faith.
By the 1650s, Jews were facing increasing anti-Semitism and persecution in Europe.
In 1655 Rabbi Menasseh Ben Israel came to England to ask Jews to be allowed back.
Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the Republic said Jews could return if they wanted to.
From March 1656 Jewish people started to migrate to England. They were allowed to follow their own religion privately and then later he allowed them to practice their faith freely.
40
Why did Oliver Cromwell let the Jews back into England, 1656?
He saw it as a major economic and trade benefit to England. Jews were well-established as international traders, and Cromwell believed they could contribute to the nation's commercial expansion.
Cromwell was a Puritan had a certain level of sympathy and liked the idea of religious freedom.
41
Why did the Palatines migrate to England, 1709?
Palatines were Protestants region of Germany. They began to migrate to England for 2 main reasons:
The Foreign Protestants Naturalisation Act, 1709. This act said that Protestants who swore an oath of loyalty to the monarch could have full civil rights in England.
There had been a series of bad harvests and wars in Germany. The Palatines were mostly poor farmers and were badly affected.
From May-June 1709, 12,000 Palatines and other German Protestants migrated to London. Many of them lived in a huge refugee camp in Blackheath.
42
Why did Gypsies migrate to Britain, 1500-1700?
Romani (Gypsies) were nomadic people who travelled throughout England and Europe.
English government regarded them as vagrants and beggars and passed laws to make them stay in one place.
Most Romani ignored the laws because their lifestyle made it hard for them to comply. Hundreds were hanged as a punishment.
43
Why did Africans migrate to Britain, 1500-1700?
Some Africans came to England as refugees after the Spanish forced black Muslims out of Spain in 1568.
Black people did a variety of jobs, receiving the same pay as white people.
Reasons for migration varied as some slaves bought their freedom, then came to England and resettled there (Oloudah Equiano 1745-1797)
44
How was the experience of Huguenots in Britain, 1500-1700?
Most had a range of skills and so found work easily and prospered.
Some worked with friends or relatives who were already established.
Many set up their own businesses. Some were desperately poor, and some took to petty crime.
Occasionally there were riots, for example, 1517 May Day riots in London, by people who resented foreigners' privileges.
Practicing Huguenots were seen as respectable of the similarities with English Protestantism.
45
What were the Evil May Day Riots, 1 May 1517?
A series of serious anti-foreigner riots. These riots were stirred up by preachers, especially a Dr Bell who described foreigners, including the Hansa, as aliens.
As a result poorer immigrants suffered violent attacks for around 5 hours.
Eventually, with the rise of English and Dutch merchants, the Crown no longer needed the Hansa merchants, and in 1597 they were expelled and the Steelyard was closed down by Queen Elizabeth I.
46
How was the experience of Palatines in Britain, 1500-1700/1700-1900?
Most had very few skills; a few found labouring work. Most had to rely on charities as they had no friends or relatives in England.
The government was no longer willing to fund emigration to America.
The government deported thousands to Ireland to work on the land - but this only worked where landowners, for example in Wexford, were supportive. About two-thirds of those deported drifted back to England. Many sailed to America but few survived.
47
How was the experience of Jews in Britain, 1500-1700?
The first Jews to return to England after their expulsion in 1290 settled in London. Here, the authorities gave them permission to open a synagogue.
They worked mainly as bankers, doctors, scholars and jewellers.
Poorer Jews began to migrate from Eastern Europe and settled in their arrival ports, working as dockers, traders and pawnbrokers. Gradually, Jews settled in most towns and cities in England.
Poor Jews were looked after by their own communities.
48
How was the experience of Indians in Britain, 1500-1700?
Ayahs' experiences depended very much on their employers. Ayahs lived with the English families who they had worked for in India. When the children grew up, ayahs were either passed on to other wealthy English families to look after their children, or they were abandoned.
Lascars settled in the ports of London, Liverpool, Glasgow and Cardiff. They worked on the docks, in warehouses and pubs. For many this meant a life of hard labour.
49
How was the experience for Africans in Britain, 1500-1700?
Some black Africans who had been enslaved overseas were brought back to England as servants.
Africans often worked as servants to the wealthy. It was fashionable for rich English people to have a black servant, especially a child.
Africans were also employed in a variety of skilled jobs, for example, as interpreters, and were paid the same wages as others. They were respected and equal members of society. Some black African migrants became quite wealthy.
50
How was the experience for 'Gypsies' in Britain, 1500-1700?
Gypsies were treated very badly in Early Modern England.
In 1530, King Henry VIII ordered that all Gypsies should be expelled from England. In 1554 Queen Mary I made it a crime to be an immigrant Romanichal Gypsy, punishable by death.
In 1577 people in Aylesbury were hanged for mixing with Gypsies. In 1592 five Gypsies were hanged in Durham. In 1596 nine people in York were executed for being Gypsies.
In the 1650s forced migration began of Gypsies into slavery in North America and the Caribbean.
51
What impact did migrants have on Britain's finance, 1500-1700?
Jewish traders working in England's ports helped the growth of Britain's maritime empire. Jewish financiers invested in businesses, enabling economic growth and helping turn London into a major financial centre.
The first governor of the Bank of England (founded 1694) was a Huguenot, as was 7 of the 25 directors. They created the 'National Debt' that meant governments could borrow large amounts of money for various enterprises.
52
What impact did migrants have on Britain's manufacturing industries, 1500-1700?
Huguenots invested in the Sheffield steel industry and started the English paper industry.
53
What impact did migrants have on the cloth trade and fashion industry, 1500-1700?
The cloth trade was boosted by skilled Huguenot silk weavers. Between 1650 and 1700 cloth exports were 20 times greater than between 1600 and 1650.
Silks and new fabrics, such as velvet and taffeta, were in demand by rich women and dress designers.
54
What impact did the Dutch have on Agriculture, 1500-1700?
Dutch engineers and labourers worked for 20 years digging ditches, straightening rivers and building pumps and windmills in order to drain the fens.
By 1642, about 40,000 acres had been turned into fertile farmland.
New jobs in agriculture were created and landowners became rich. However, many people lost their jobs as the fens was drained.
55
What groups of people migrated between the years 1700-1900 (18th-19th-century Britain)?
Jews, Africans, Europeans: Germans and Dutch, Indians, Chinese, and Irish (Liverpool Case Study)
56
What impact did the industrial revolution have on 18th-19th century Britain and why did it attract migrants?
Towns and cities like Bradford and Manchester grew rapidly because of rapid growth of work available in factories as a result of industrialisation.
Agriculture changed: enclosure of fields meant that better crops were grown and high-quality meat and wool were produced.
Transport links involving roads, canals and railways were improved.
57
What was the transatlantic slave trade?
By 1750 Britain sold more black Africans into slavery in the Caribbean than any other European nation.
3.5 million black Africans were transported across the Atlantic in British ships. They were sold into slavery on sugar and cotton plantations in the Caribbean and the southern states of America.
Enslaved people laboured in brutal conditions, slave traders became very rich.
58
Why did the Irish migrate to Britain, 1700-1900?
The whole of Ireland was part of Britain at this time. In the 1840s and 1850s Ireland was hit by a terrible famine. Tens of thousands of Irish people migrated to England and Scotland. They were fleeing poverty and starvation, in search of a better life.
Liverpool and Glasgow were the nearest ports to Belfast and Dublin so were quicker and cheaper to reach. Many Irish migrants settled here.
Many migrants planned to stop in Britain on their way to America or Australia. However, hundreds found they couldn't afford the fare to travel further, so they stayed in Britain. They usually lived in the poorest parts of cities, often in Irish communities already there.
59
Why did Indians and Asians migrate to Britain, 1700-1900?
When rich families returned to Britain from India, their Indian servants often chose to go with them. They would be the family's ayah.
Indian students migrated to study at British universities. Many studied Law. Some Indian princes came to Britain as they preferred the way Britain was ruled.
The East India Company recruited sailors (lascars) from India, China, Malaya, Somalia and Yemen to transport their goods to Britain. The working conditions on ships were poor so many lascars stayed in British ports in search of better life. Others were abandoned by their employers.
60
Why did Jews migrate to Britain, 1700-1900?
They came to join existing Jewish communities in Britain. Some fled from persecution.
Although anti-Semitism still existed, there was an increasing tolerance in Britain, especially compared with the persecution Jews faced in Russia.
61
Why did Italians migrate to Britain, 1700-1900?
Agriculture in Britain was prosperous compared to in Italy.
Britain was peaceful and less dangerous than Italy, which was at war and had outbreaks of typhus and cholera.
62
Why did Germans migrate to Britain, 1700-1900?
Britain had greater freedom for political thinkers to express their ideas and greater opportunities - it was free from government interference for skilled people.
Britain was peaceful compared with the warfare between German states.
63
What was the function of The East India Company?
The company was formed in 1600 to trade in the Indian Ocean. Eventually it ran vast areas of India, with its own army and administrators.
From 1858 the British government ruled India in what was called the British Raj.
64
What was the experience for Irish migrants like in 1700-1900?
Most Irish migrants settled in Britain's industrialising cities and took on labouring work as few had the skills needed for factory work.
Irish migrants faced prejudice from the English because they were Catholic in a Protestant country and worked for lower wages than the English.
Some English people thought that all Irish migrants were Fenians (Irish Independence fighters) who ran bombing campaigns in London and other cities in the 1880s. This led to mob violence, Individual attacks and riots against the Irish.
65
What was the experience for European migrants (Germans and Italians) like in 1700-1900?
Some German engineers and scientists set up companies that became very successful. Hundreds of Germans set up small businesses such as shops and restaurants.
Some Italians continued working as they had done in Italy, making tiles and ceramics or labouring on the roads. Other Italians developed new skills, such as making and selling ice cream and working as street musicians.
Because they contributed to the economy positively, German and Italian migrants were generally well regarded.
66
What was the experience like for Jews in 1700-1900?
New Jewish migrants settled in established Jewish communities, where they were supported until they found work. Many of the new migrant Jews worked in the clothing industry.
New Jewish migrants were poorer and faced increased anti-Semitism. Many English people thought their income was threatened because new Jewish migrants were often prepared to work longer hours for lower wages.
The authorities could do nothing to stop this and the unions were furious because they had fought long and hard to get hours of work regulated. Anti-Semitism rose although Britain was starting to become more tolerant.
67
What role did the media play in changing attitudes toward migrants, 1700-1900?
Newspapers publicised the judgement of Lord Justice Mansfield, 1772, when he said that slavery did not legally exist in England. This judgement delighted many black Africans in Britain as well as those who wanted slavery and the transatlantic slave trade to end. Those who benefited from trade were less happy.
Paul Reuter, a German migrant, started the London-based Reuters News Agency in 1851. It sold international news to British newspapers and made British readers feel part of a wider world.
Newspapers reported on Mary Seacole, a Jamaican nurse who was left destitute after caring for soldiers during the Crimean War. A fund-raising gala was held in 1858 which raised a lot of money due to publicity the she received.
68
What impact did migrants have on politics and parliament in 1700-1900?
Black Africans, some of whom had been enslaved, like Olaudah Equiano, helped persuade the public and MPs that the slave trade and slavery itself, should be abolished. In 1807 Parliament voted to abolish the transatlantic slave trade, and to abolish slavery in the British Empire in 1833.
German migrants like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels had a significant impact on the way people believed society should be organised. Their Communist Manifesto had a lasting impact on international politics.
Some migrants became involved with Chartism, a national movement that wanted working-class representation in Parliament.
69
What impact did migrants have on the urban environment, 1700-1900?
Migrants and their work changed the appearance of towns and cities. For example:
Railways went into town and city centres.
Synagogues were built so Jews could worship in line with their own beliefs. By 1900 a small number of mosques had also been built for Asian Muslims to worship.
70
What impact did migrants have on trade and industry in 1700-1900?
Irish navvies, by digging canals and constructing railways, played a huge part in making Britain's economy successful. By the 1880s, a rail network linked all the major cities, towns and ports, transporting raw material and finished goods.
Many migrants were employed in and helped some industries thrive. Many Eastern European Jews worked in the clothing trade.
Migrants owned and ran shops, banks and businesses. Many did very well and helped the British economy grow and prosper. For example, in 1884 Michael Marks, a Polish Jew, owned a stall in Leeds market. By 1900 Marks & Spencer had shops in all Britain's major towns.
71
What impact did migrants have on culture in 1700-1900?
They had an impact beyond their own communities. Chinese, Indian and Jewish restaurants and cafes added variety to people's diets.
The music of Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, the son of a black African father who also had an English wife, was enjoyed by many and helped to break down racial prejudice.
72
What was the 1905, Aliens Act?
Only people with jobs or money could migrate to Britain.
73
What was the 1948, British Nationality Act?
Millions of people in the British colonies were given the right to enter Britain and stay.
74
What was the 1962, Commonwealth Immigrants Act?
A voucher system was introduced. Only those with a valuable skill or who could get a job where there was a shortage of workers were able to get a voucher and so permission to migrate.
75
What was the 1968, Commonwealth Immigrants Act?
The number of vouchers available was reduced. Applicants had to have been born in Britain or have parents or grandparents born there.
76
What was the 1971 Immigration Act?
Vouchers were replaced with work permits for specific time periods. These didn't apply to people with British-born parents or grandparents.
77
What was the 1981, Nationality Act?
The automatic right to stay in Britain was no longer possible for non-British citizens.
78
What happened to Ireland by 1922?
Most of Ireland became independent in 1922, leaving only Northern Ireland, the six north-eastern counties, as part of the UK.
79
What groups of people migrated from 1900-Present?
Caribbeans, Jews, Eastern Europeans, Ex-Empire: Indians and Ugandans.
80
Why did Belgians and Poles migrate to Britain?
250,000 Belgians fled to Britain, as did 160,000 Polish people during WWII. They regarded Britain as a place of safety. The 1905 Aliens Act was suspended to allow them into the country.
Most Belgians returned to Belgium in 1919, but many Poles decided to remain after 1945 because Poland became a communist state.
81
What did the government do in 1948 to encourage people to migrate to Britain and why?
There weren't enough migrants coming from Europe to help rebuild after WWII. Therefore, the government started to encourage people from the colonies, particularly from the Caribbean, to migrate to Britain. As well as rebuilding, this was also for working on buses, trains in the London Transport system and working in the NHS, launched in 1948.
The third ship to bring migrants from the Caribbean is the best known, the Empire Windrush. It docked at Tilbury in June 1948 with over 800 migrants.
82
Why was employment lucrative for migrants after the Second World War?
There was plenty employment available in Britain, rebuilding everything that bombing had destroyed. People from all over Europe travelled to work in Britain's bombed cities.
83
Why did Jewish children migrate to Britain 1900-Present?
Between December 1938 and September 1939, over 8,000 Jewish children from Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Austria travelled to safety to Britain on their own. The children were escaping Nazi persecution and the rescue mission was called 'KIndertransport' (children's transport)
They were due to return home after the war, but many stayed as most of their relatives perished in the Holocaust.
84
Why did Indians and Pakistanis migrate to Britain, 1900-Present?
Due to political and independence it caused terrible violence when the country was divided into India and Pakistan. Thousands migrated to Britain.
85
Why did Asians in Kenya migrate to Britain in 1967?
Kenya had a large Asian population. Four years after Independence, the Kenyan President asked all Asians in Kenya to choose between being Kenyan and being British - 95,000 chose to remain British. All non-Kenyans could only remain on a temporary basis. The Kenyan government imposed stricter measures making it harder for Asians to work.
By 1968, 20,000 had migrated to Britain and settled, mainly in London and Leicester. This was one of the reasons that led the 1968 Commonwealth Immigrants Act.
86
Why did Asian Ugandans migrate to Britain in 1972?
Similar to Kenya, the Asian community in Uganda played a large part in creating the country's prosperity. Idi Amin first ordered their expulsion, but then insisted the professionals had to stay.
After failed negotiations, the British government offered Asians in Uganda either an Indian or a British passport: 27,000 chose to go to Britain. Thousands settled in Leicester.
87
Why was the United Nations Convention on Refugees so significant, 1951?
Britain signed the convention, agreeing to offer asylum to people facing persecution or fleeing war, violence. Migrants came to Britain to avoid dangerous situations in their home countries.
Many migrants applied for asylum and arrived in Britain legally. However, desperate refugees sometimes resorted to paying smugglers to enter Britain illegally.
88
What was the experience for Belgians like in, 1914-1919?
British welcomed Belgians. Many set up small businesses. About 90% returned to Belgium by 1919.
89
What was the experience for Germans like in, 1914?
The day after Britain declared war on Germany, all Germans in Britain were declared 'enemy aliens' and were interned (put in prison for political reasons). This was called the 1914 Aliens Restriction Act which built on the 1905 Aliens Act.
Other migrants were interned too, including Austrians, Hungarians, Bulgarians and Turks. Most were released by 1919.
90
Why was there civil unrest towards Jews in 1936?
The British Union of Fascists (BUF), a group that supported the Nazis, held a march through an area of London with a large Jewish population. FIghting broke out in Cable Street between the marchers, and the Jews alongside supporters of the Jewish community. The police were trying to force the march through. In the end the police diverted the march elsewhere.
This march became known as the 'Battle of Cable Street'.
91
What was the experience for Jewish children like in, 1939?
Many felt sympathy for them and they were welcomed by Brits.
92
What happened to the British Union of Fascists (BUF) and their leader Oswald Mosley, 1940?
The BUF was banned when Britain was at war with Germany in 1940. Oswald Mosley was arrested. The Jewish community were relieved.
93
What was the Polish Resettlement Act, 1947?
It gave Poles the right to remain, Polish communities grew in many towns and cities and gained wide acceptance. Many Brits liked them due to their wartime contributions.
94
What was the National Front (NF) set up in, 1967?
A far-right fascist political party, similar to the BUF, founded to oppose immigration. Members believed that only white people should be British citizens.
95
What famous speech led to social division in 1968?
Enoch Powell, conservative shadow secretary, made what was later called the 'rivers of blood' speech. He criticised immigration, especially from the Commonwealth and called for Immigrants to be sent back. He was dismissed from the shadow cabinet the day after.
Many believe the speech led to increased violence against British Pakistanis and Asians.
96
What was the British National Party (BNP), set up in, 1982?
Similar to the National Front and the BUF, members opposed non-white migrations.
97
What were two examples of street fighting between migrants and Brits, 1900-Present?
In 1981, Brixton, London: Riots, which lasted for 3 days, were triggered by accusations of police brutality against migrants.
In Burnley, Lancashire, 2001: A weekend of rioting was triggered by a dispute between Asian and white drug gangs.
Both riots were widely reported and discussed in the media. Some parts of the media portrayed migrants negatively, leading to further social division.
98
Why did race relations legislation introduced by the government aim to do?
Aimed to encourage better relationships between migrants and Brits in communities. It was closely linked to legislation that limited immigration.
Governments wanted immigrants to integrate into British society and believed that could only be done if Immigration was limited.
99
What were the three Race Relations Act and why were significant?
1965 Race Relations Act: First act to make some types of racial discrimination illegal.
1968 Race Relations Act: Discrimination in housing and employment were made illegal.
1976 Race Relations Act: This set up a Commission for Racial Equality to use the law to prevent racial discrimination and raise public awareness of racial injustice.
100
What was the 1998 Crime and Disorder Act?
It introduced more severe punishments if a crime was seen to have been aggravated by racism.
101
What impact did migrants have on transport, the public sector, and industry, 1900-Present?
Migrants, particularly from the Caribbean, played a vital part in building up Britain's transport systems after WWII. For example, in 1968 London Transport employed 73,000 people, including 9,000 from the Caribbean. London Transport employed Caribbean men and women as bus conductors, station staff, and canteen workers and, later, as bus drivers.
Migrants, for example, Irish and Italian migrants, played a major role in rebuilding Britain's Industry after WWII. For example, by 1971, nearly 300,000 migrants worked in manufacturing and engineering, mainly in the West Midlands.
Migrants were urgently needed to work as doctors, nurses, cleaners, and porters. Many came from Eastern European, India, and Pakistan. They were vital at the start of the NHS and in keeping it running. About 12% of doctors in 1953-1955 had been trained overseas. In 2003, 29.4% of NHS doctors and 43.5% of NHS nurses were born overseas.
102
What impact did migrants have on social politics in, 1900-Present?
Harold Moody founded the League of Coloured Peoples in 1931. It campaigned for civil rights and helped many black people deal with the prejudice they faced.
'Show Racism the Red Card' is a charity working to stamp out racism in football. Started in Tyneside in 1996 it has spread throughout Britain.
The Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement protests against racially motivated violence. It began in the USA in 2013 and spread worldwide after the murder of George Floyd in May 2020. In June 2020, protest marches were held across the UK. The internet has had a tremendous impact on the spread of the movement.
103
What impact did migrants have on culture and the urban environment in, 1900-Present?
Migrants introduced new foods such as pizzas, sausages, kebabs, chow mein and chicken tikka masala. This changed the British diet.
The urban environment changed by buildings such as mosques and synagogues. Colourful entrances to migrant communities, like that to Chinatown, Manchester, attracted visitors.
Migrants renovated areas where they lived. Many Asians often ran small corner shops that opened early to late and served the whole community.
104
What is the Notting Hill case study, 1948-1970?
Notting Hill is an area of West London. After the Second World War, many Caribbean people migrated to Notting Hill. The area was very run down and housing was a major problem.
105
Why did Caribbean migrants settle in Notting Hill, 1948?
Paddington station is very close to Notting Hill. It was the first London station at which the trains carrying Caribbean migrants stopped. Caribbean officials waited there to welcome them and help them find accommodation. The housing was cheap and often in poor quality meaning landlords didn't mind renting in Notting Hill.
Many migrants already had friends or family in Notting Hill and wanted to live near or with them. The black community in Notting Hill grew larger.
The hostile reaction of many white people made Caribbean migrants want to live closer together. Few landlords elsewhere in London would rent houses or rooms to Caribbean migrants because of the colour of their skin.
106
What were the housing problems Caribbean migrants faced in Notting Hill?
Although the housing was cheap for the landlords Caribbean migrants had to pay high rents for poor, squalid housing in Notting Hill.
Landlords charged Caribbean people higher rents than white people for the same type of accommodation and so overcrowding was common.
Few landlords made repairs to their houses as spending money would reduce their profits.
107
What were slum landlords in Notting Hill?
Houses in Notting Hill were often large but were usually cheap to buy because they were bomb-damaged. Many landlords applied to change the houses they owned into Houses of Multiple Occupancy (HMOs). This meant a single house could be rented to several people or even several families, not just one family.
Everyone in a single house shared a kitchen and a bathroom. These were often of poor quality.
There were no rent controls so landlords could charge what they like.
108
Who was Peter Rachman?
A polish landlord, nicknamed the slumlord of Notting Hill. who operated in Notting Hill. He owned 80 run-down, squalid properties in Notting Hill. His houses were all HMOs and he charged high rents, making over £80,000 a year (nearly £2 million today).
He also had employed henchmen who intimidated tenants if they complained or couldn't pay their rent.
109
What was the Notting Hill Housing Trust set up, in 1965?
Bruce Kenrick, a white Brit, was a Christian minister in the United Reform Church. He lived in Notting Hill and was appalled by the conditions in which Caribbean families were forced to live.
In 1965, he founded the Notting Hill Housing Trust, which aimed to provide proper housing at affordable rent to all people in the community. By 1970 the Trust was housing nearly 1,000 people, improving many people's lives.
110
What was the Portobello Road Market in Notting Hill?
Portobello Road runs through the heart of Notting Hill. Caribbean migrants began to sell food such as yams and breadfruit, sweet potatoes and dasheen there, and the small market flourished. A cafe opened, serving Caribbean food.
In 1969 Island Records, founded in Jamaica, moved its base to near Portobello Road. The area soon gained a reputation as the place to go for Caribbean music and culture.
111
How did Caribbean culture develop in Notting Hill?
Caribbean people's love of spicy well-seasoned foods provided wonderful opportunities for traders to set up market stalls selling Caribbean food and ingredients for home cooking. Some Caribbean migrants began setting up pubs, cafes, and restaurants.
The Metro Club opened in 1968. It was a community centre and youth club by day and a nightclub in the evenings. Nightclubs and mainstream radios didn't play black music so It was difficult for Caribbeans to access the music they wanted. However, Basing Street Studios opened in 1969 to meet this demand with performers such as Diana Ross.
112
What was the All Saints Road in Notting Hill?
All Saints Road was a street on Notting Hill which became a centre of Caribbean culture and also of black activism.
The Mangrove Restaurant, opened in March 1968 by Frank Crichlow, was an all-night restaurant that served Caribbean food. It was the first black-owned restaurant in the area and was very popular - with people within and outside the Caribbean community, as well as both black and white celebrities.
The headquarters of activist group British Black Panthers was set up there in 1968. The Apollo pub in Notting Hill was the first pub to serve black people. The Notting Hill Carnival organisers often met in the Mangrove.
113
What were the mutual self-help organisations in Notting Hill?
The Caribbean Community set up groups to help and support each other. These groups also helped give Caribbean migrants a clear sense of identity,
The London Free School arranged childcare and organised activities for children. This was vital as many childminders refused to take black children.
The Unity Association owned two properties where it housed homeless black youngsters who usually had great difficulty in finding housing.
The Black People's Information Centre provided legal advice and welfare support. It also provided information on black history and civil rights.
114
How were Caribbean migrants in Notting Hill able to buy housing?
Some banks did not allow black people to open accounts and some building societies refused to give them a mortgage.
Pardner schemes helped black people save so that they could buy their own homes outright.
115
Why were there Notting Hill riots in 1958?
On 30 August 1958 a mob of 400 white people, angered by seeing a mixed-race couple outside a pub, attacked the homes of Caribbean people. They used petrol bombs, iron bars, knuckle dusters, and knives.
Black people defended their homes. The riot lasted for 5 days before the police restored order.
116
What impact did the Notting Hill riots have, 1958?
The police refused to accept the riots were racially motivated. This angered Caribbean migrants.
The black community refused to accept that they had been involved in a riot. They claimed they were simply defending themselves and their property, not rioting.
Organisations were turned to fight for black civil rights. Among these were the Inter-Racial Friendship Coordinating Council and the West Indian Standing conference.
117
What was the murder of Kelso Cochrane, 1959?
On 17 May 1959 Kelso Cochrane, aged 32, was murdered by a gang of white youths. The murderers were never caught.
People in the black community were angry, believing the police, instead of trying to catch the killers.
118
Why did the murder of Kelso Cochrane anger the Caribbean community?
Most newspapers agreed with the police. This further angered the black community, who were supported by a visit from the prime minister of Jamaica.
Kelso Cochrane's funeral attended by hundred of white and black people, demonstrating support for the black community.
Members of the Inter-Racial Friendship Coordinating Council asked Harold Macmillan, British PM, to make racially motivated violence a crime. However, the government instead allowed the White Defence League to hold a rally in Trafalgar Square on 24th of May 1959. Black people believed it was up to them to fight for civil rights.
119
What were the White Defence League?
Was a violent organisation demanding should be 'kept white'. Its office was in Notting Hill. It was later joined with British National Party - a move that was seen by the Caribbean community as provocative, intended to encourage violent acts against them.
120
Why did Notting Hill become a focus for anti-immigrant groups?
Far-right anti-Immigrant groups intended on stirring up fear among the migrant community. This fear was worsened because migrants didn't believe the police would protect them if a situation grew ugly.
121
What was the Union Movement, set up in 1948?
The successor to the BUF led by Oswald Mosley. Its slogan was 'Keep Britain White' and it had offices in Notting Hill. These offices were deliberately established there in order to make the black migrant community fearful.
In the 1959 general election Mosley ran for Parliament to win the seat of Kensington North, which included Notting Hill. In his violent and racist campaign, he falsely claimed all black people were criminals and rapists. He only received 8.08% of the votes. He and the party never recovered from the defeat.
122
Who were the Teddy boys?
White working class youth who roamed the streets looking for black people to attack. They were part of gangland culture that flourished in Notting Hill, making it a dangerous place especially for black Caribbean migrants.
123
Who was Claudia Jones?
Born in Trinidad, Claudia Jones was deported from the USA, where she lived in 1955 because of her civil rights.
She moved to Britain and in 1958 she set up the West Indian Gazette, Britain's first major newspaper for black people.
124
What was so significant about Claudia Jones and the West Indian Gazette?
She persuaded London Transport to allow black people to rise to senior positions.
She campaigned against the 1962 Commonwealth Immigration act that restricted immigration from black, but not white, commonwealth countries.
She persuaded the West Indian Gazette to sponsor the first Caribbean Carnival in 1959. Her offices in South London received loads of abusive, threatening, and often racist mail and was once attacked by the KKK.
125
Who were the British Black Panthers (BBP) formed in 1968, and what did they do?
Inspired by the USA Black Panther Party, formed 1968. Primarily based in Notting Hill and Brixton. Aimed to build a sense or pride in the black community.
Campaigned against police brutality. Provided legal aid to black people being prosecuted. They also campaigned on prominent social issues migrants faced including housing, healthcare, and employment.
They played a significant role in the defense of the Mangrove restaurant.
126
What was the Notting Hill Carnival?
The first Caribbean Carnival featured black entertainers such as Cleo Laine. It took place in St Pancreas Town Hall, London, on the 30th of January 1959.
Claudia Jones was instrumental in organising and running the first carnival. She then moved the event around England so that more people could get involved.
In 1966, two years after Jones' death, the event moved outdoors. Now known as the Notting Hill Carnival, today it is the biggest street festival in Europe.
127
What was so significant about Frank Crichlow and the Mangrove?
Police regularly raided the Mangrove looking for drugs. None were ever found. Furious at police action, the British Black Panthers (BBP helped organise a protest march.
The organisers informed the government and Caribbean officials of their plan. Over 150 people took part in the march on the 9th of August 1970. The police monitored the march and the Mangrove's customers.
The police cliamed the marchers were inciting racial violence. Many were arrested, including Frank Crichlow, the Mangrove's owner.
128
What happened to Frank Crichlow during the trial?
Magistrates dismissed the chargesm but the Director of Public Prosecutions decided nine defendants (the Mangrove Nine) had to be tried, including Frank Crichlow.
All defendants were eventually acquitted of the serious charges. The government tried to make the judge take back his ruling that there was racial hatred on both sides, but he refused. The trial was seen as a great victory for the black community.
