Mikro forelæsninger Flashcards
(152 cards)
1
Q
What are microorganisms?
A
organisms that you can’t see with the unaided eye (< 0.1 mm) mainly single cell organisms (no differentatiion of cells)
• viruses are not microorganisms
yeast, algae and fungi are miros, but are eukarytes cells.
2
Q
Hvilket gen er fyloginien baseret på hos prokaryote og hvilket er hos eukayoter?
A
16S rRNA prokaryote
18S rRna eukayoter
3
Q
How differs prokaryotes and eukaryotes whit there nucleus whit cell membrane?
A
Eukaryotes have, Pro dos not.
4
Q
How many chromosomes does prokaryotes and eukaryotes have?
A
prokaryotes 1 and eukaryotes 2 or more
5
Q
Does prokaryotes and eukaryotes have mitosis?
A
Prokaryotes don’t and eukaryotes does.
6
Q
Does prokaryotes and eukaryotes have secual reproduction:
A
prokaryotes Rare: only part of the genome involed, and eukaryotes gommen ; all chromosomes involved .
7
Q
Does prokaryotes and eukaryotes have meiosis:
A
Prokaryotes no and eukaryotes yes
8
Q
What is the advantage of being small?
A
Microbes process their nutrients 10 to 1000 times faster per gram than mammalian cells. High surface to volume ratio allows quick chemical exchange.
9
Q
Hvad er nitrification?
A
NH4+ (ammonium) –> NO3 - nitrat
10
Q
Hvad er denitrifikation?
A
NO3- (nitrat) –> N2 (kvælstof)
11
Q
Hvad er N2 fiksation?
A
N2 + 8H+ –> NH3 (ammoniak) + H2
12
Q
Hvilket bakterier laver N2 fikation aerobt?
A
Cyanobakterier og azotobacter
13
Q
Hvilke bakterier laver N2 fikation anaerobt?
A
Clostridium
14
Q
Hvad er Ammonifikation?
A
Org-N –> NH4 (ammonium)
15
Q
Hvad er anamox?
A
NO2- + NH3 –> 2N
16
Q
Hvilke bakterier laver anamox?
A
Brocodia
17
Q
What are sterilization and withs methods do you know?
A
killing of all living cells and all spores
• not all methods are 100% effective -> reduction of germs (backteriea)
depending on material that needs to be sterilized different methods are used: o heat sterilization o Pasteurization o irradiation sterilization o sterile filtration o chemical sterilization
18
Q
which heat sterilizations do you now?
A
Cooking
(100 °C for 15 min)
kills living cells but not all spores
Moist heat and pressure
(autoclave, 121 °C, 15 psi for 15 min) kills living cells and spores
Dry heat
(160-180 °C for 2-4 hours) kills living cells and spore
19
Q
What are pasteurization? And how many microbial cells does it kill?
A
reduces microbial cells by 79-99%
- historical method: 63-66 °C for 30 min –
- modern method: 72 °C for 15 sek
20
Q
What is Irradiation?
A
high energy radiation destroys cell components, especially DNA -> spores are quite tolerant to radiation
– UV radiation (approx. 260 nm)
– ionizing radiation (Gamma- and X-rays, < 10 nm)
21
Q
how big is a sterile filter and why?
A
Bacterial and archaeal cells normally have a size of 0.5-1 μm
Membrane and nucleopore filters have pore sizes of 0.2 μm and stop nearly 100% of all cells
22
Q
What is chemical sterilization?
A
many chemicals can kill prokaryotic microorganisms
organic compounds: e.g. ethanol, phenol, formaldehyde
halogens: e.g. iodine solution, chlorine bleach
heavy metals: e.g. mercuric chloride, silver nitrate
others: e.g. hydrogen peroxide, ozone
23
Q
how many % of cell cell wight is water?
A
75 %
24
Q
What is the cytoplasmic mebranes main function?
A
Permeability barrier
Protein anchor (anker)
Energy conservation
25
What is the different in the membrane lipids between bacteria, eukaryotes and archaea?
Archer have Ether linkage, bacteria and eukaryotes have ester linkage.
26
What is periplasm?
Protected environment between the membranes. Nedbrydende enzyme findes her for at nedbryder molekyler der bliver transporteret ind i cellen.
27
Where do we find prorins?
In outer membrane transporting hydrophilic compounds (sugars, amino acids, ions)
28
How big can a molecyle be so they still can pass porin?
700 daltons.
29
What are capsules, and what do they do?
slime or capsule covering the cells to protect them.
| They consist of high-molecular weight polysaccharides
30
How does the transcription and translation work in bacteria?
In contrast to eukaryotes transcription and translation are coupled.
31
What is fimbriae and phili used to?
To attach to surfaces and to form biofilms
Pili are used to attach transfer proteins and DNA and motility. All fram negative bacteria and many gram positive have it.
32
What does catabolism means?
Breakdown of complex molecules into smaller ones.
33
What does anabolism means:
reactions that build cells.
34
Name some bacteria who is chemoorganoheterotrophs
most bacteria, e.g. Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, etc.
35
Which reaktions are chemolithoautotrophs
nitrifiers (NH4++O2), sulfur‐oxidizers, iron‐oxidizers, Knaldgas‐bacteria (H2+O2)
36
Which bacteria is chemolithoheterotrophs
some species of Thiobacilus, Beggiatoa, Nitrobacter spp., Wolinella (H2)
37
which bacteria is photolithoautotrophs
Cyanobacteria (H2O), Chlorobiaceae, Chromatiaceae (H2S), Chloroflexus (H2)
38
Which bacteria is photoorganoheterotrophs (some mixotrophic)
Rhodobacter, Rhodopseudomonas, Rhodospirillum, Rhodomicrobium, Heliobacterium, Chloroflexus
39
What is the netto energy output of glycolysis?
2 ATP
40
What is substrate-level phosphorylation?
transfer of a phosphoryl group from an organic substrate to ADP to generate ATP
41
what is the netto energy output of pentose phosphate pathway?
1 ARP, 2 NADPH
42
What is the netto energy output of entner-douoroff (ED)
1 ATP, 1 NADH AND 1 NADPH
43
What is entner-douoroff used to?
bruges til sugar-acid - altså glukose der er oxideret mere
| end glukose-6-p
44
what is pentose phosphate pathway used to?
many precursors for biosynthesis of cell components (eg. pentose backbones of nucleic acids)
45
what is the netto energy output for TCA cycle?
2 ATP, 6 NADP + 2 FADH2
46
What are the netto energy output for ome molekyle of glukose?
38 ATP
47
Hvad er række følgen på reduktions potentialet hos, , CO2. NO3, O2, SO42 MN2+, FE,
O2, NO3, MN2+, FE, SO42 CO2.
48
Hvad er forskellen på type 1 og type 2 reaktions centrere?
Type I
• ferredoxin reductases
• electron acceptor is ferredoxin (iron– sulfur protein)
• ferredoxin is very electronegative (-400 mV)
• very potent reducing agent
• most of the energy from the photon is conserved
Type II
• quinone reductases
• reduces quinones to quinols
• quinols are weak reducing agent (0 to -100 mV)
• more energy dissipated in reaction center
• less efficient than type I
49
What is rubisco?
Rubisco consists of 8 small (S) and 8 large (L) subunits.
Catalyzes the condensation of CO2 to ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate, and the splitting of the unstable 6C intermediate into two 3C PGA molecules
50
Hvad kendetegner chemolithotrofe organismer?
inorganic electron donors (NH4+, NO2-, H2S)
o oxidized (usually by O2)energy
o oxidized to produce NADPH for CO2 fixation
low efficiency
low biomass but high activities
unique ecological niche – do not compete for organics
NADPH needed to reduce CO2 generated by ”reverse electron transport” at the expense of the proton potential
51
what does colony morphology describes?
formation of colonies
• shape of colonies
• pigmentation of colonies
• exopolymer production
52
What does cell morphology describes?
Shape
Size
Gram ration
Presence of flagella and their arrangement
53
What does motility describes?
motile by flagella
motile by gliding
buoyancy by gas vesicles
nonmotile
54
hvad har man I mente når man clacificere efter næringsstoffer og fysiologi?
energy conservation: phototroph, chemoorganotroph, chemolithotroph
• aerob, anaerobe
• temperature optimum
• pH optimum
• salt requirements/tolerances
• ability to use carbon, nitrogen and sulfur sources
• growth factor requirements
55
Hvilke andre factore kan spille ind i taxonomy os bakterier?
```
pigments
spore formation
cell inclusions
surface layers
pathogenicity
antibiotic sensitivity
```
56
Hvordan bestemmer man ny prokaryotiske arter?
isolate new organism
• characterize it: physiological test, genome
• deposit it as type strain at a culture collection
• publish in International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology (IJSEM) with a proposed
name with publication name is official
• later species will be included in overview literature like Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology
57
Hvorfor burger man 16rRNA til at bestemme bacterier?
General considerations
• universal – essential in all cells
• similar function – directly comparable
• 1500 bp is long enough to see useful differences
• interacts with other gene products in complex assembly critical for survival – decreases likelihood of horizontal gene transfer
Practical advantages
• conserved regions alternate with more variable regions (because all bases are functional – compare protein)
• allows reliable alignment over broad taxonomic range
• conserved regions allow for use of “universal primers” for PCR
• many sequences available for comparison in online databases
58
What is the definition for a prokaryotic species?
group of similar related strains that differ more from other strains than they do from each other
96-98% identity in the 16S rRNA gene
>70% genome hybridization
59
What is the definition for a eukaryotic species
Organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offsprings.”
60
How many estimated prokaryotic species is there?
>10 million
61
Which other methods do we use for classification?
• 16S rDNA sequencing/ribotyping o analysis of 16S rRNA gene
• Multilocus sequence typing
sequencing of multiple genes and combined phylogeny
• Genomic G+C content
can be characteris8c for species/phylogenetic groups
• DNA-DNA hybridizaUon
genomic DNA of new strain is hybridized with known strain
percentage of hybridization tells how closely related they are
• Fatty acid analysis
extraction and analysis of fatty acids
• Genome sequencing
modern approach to compare species
62
What types of growth do we know?
individual cell grows in size (anabolism)
| population grows because cells are dividing
63
what is population growth?
individual cells grow and eventually divide
| • as a result the amount of cells in the culture/environment increases --> population growth
64
What types of cell division do we know?
Binary fission
Budding
Asymmetric fission
65
How does cell division different for gram negative and gram positive bacteria?
Gram-negative bacteria
- constriction of cell envelope in the middle of the cell
- constriction deepens until cells are separated
Gram-positive bacteria
- no constriction of their girth
- formation of division septum
66
what is aging?
Bacterial cell division generates cells with an old and a net pole.
67
Which prokatotic cell dicision phases du you know?
```
C period (S) replication of chromosome
D period (G2) cell division
G1 period (G1) normal growth/waiting period
```
68
What does the cell division phase varies between and dependant on?
Different spicies and
Genetic characteristics
Availability of carbon and energy
Temperature
69
How can e. coli dived I 20 min.
transkripsionen tager 40 min, men
de hurtigste e.coli kan dele sig på 20 min.
Det vil altså sige at de deler sig inden de er færdige med
at replikere sig selv.
70
Which types of microbial population growth do you know?
batch culture:
in laboratory cultures
not often found in nature maximum growth rate
```
chemostat:
continuous culture
can be optimized for high or low growth rate
good yields
closer to environmental growth
```
environment:
sometimes batch culture-like (exception)
slow growth rate with long G1 phases (chemostat-like)
71
Witch phases is there in a growth kruve?
Lag
Exponential/log
Stationary
Death
72
What happens in the lag phase?
```
adjust to new conditions
increase metabolism/anabolism
grow in size but don’t divide
growth unbalanced
synthesize enzymes necessary for growth
start replicating the chromosome
```
73
what happens in the exponential growth?
Balanced growth
• every time the cells divide the popula4on doubles Population growth is proportional with size of population
dN/dt = kN
N: population size
k: growth rate constant (time-1, usually: hours-1) t: time
74
How do you calculate the generation time?
```
G = (ln 2) / K
K= hældningen på kurven (skal være log)
```
75
What happens in the stationary phase?
Cell division is equal to death rate.
• no net increase in population size
• growth rate and death rate are in balance
• new nutrients come only from lysing cells
• waste products accumulate and inhibit growth
• living cells are smaller
• organisms capable of producing endospores do this here
76
What happens in the death phase?
nutrients are used up
• waste products accumulate to toxic levels
• net decrease in cell numbers
• cells die quick but with a constant speed
• often cell death has a similar kinetic as exponential growth phase
• not all cells die
• resistant cells and endospores survive
77
How can you measuring microbial growth?
Total cell count:
Turdidity
microscopiccount
flow cytometry
Viable cell count:
dilution and plating (colony forming unit (CFU) count)
membrane filtration (CFU)
Most probate number (MPN)
78
Hvad er udfordringen med turbidity measurement (lys) ?
hvis der er mange celler sker der en skygge effekt, så man ser kun de første celler.
79
Which factors control microbial growth?
```
nutrient availability
• temperature
• oxygen
• salinity
• pressure
• pH
• waste products
inhibitors
```
80
what happens to the growth rate in high temperatures?
growth rates fall because enzymes denature
81
what happens to the growth rate in low temperatures
growth rates fall because of decreases in membrane fluidity and enzymatic activity.
82
What is microbial ecology?
The study of microbes ́ relationship to one another and with their environment.
(Eukaryota, Archaea, Bacteria, (viruses))
83
What is biogeochemistry?
Biogeochemistry describes the cycling, transport and transforma/on of chemical elements and molecules that move between the bio/c (”bio-”) and abio/c (”-geo-”) part of an ecosystem.
84
What is the most important elements in biogeochemical cycles?
Carbon Oxygen Nitrogen Hydrogen Phosphorus Sulfur Metals
85
What is a r-strategist an which habitats do you find them?
Some habitats have - -
discontinuous nutrient
availability (periods of rapid growth alternating with starvation)
- rapid initiation of growth (short lag time) and rapid growth rates when nutrients are present ability to spend longtime periods in stationary phase
86
What is a k-strategist an which habitats do you find them?
Some habitats have continuous nutrient availability
This selects for:
•high-efficiency permeasescan take up nutrients at low conc.
• the ability to sustain very low growth rates, while not in stationary phase
87
What is a mutualism?
In mutualism, each partner species benefits from the other and
may fail to grow independently.
• Mutualism can involve two or more microbial partners.
o It can also involve one or more microbial partners with a plant or animal host.
88
Dicribe the types of symbiosis?
Syntrophy: a metabolic association requiring both
partners to complete the metabolism with a ΔG < 0
• Synergism: an optional cooperation where both
species benefit, but can grow independently
* Commensalism: one partner benefits, while the other is unaffected.
* Amensalism: one partner is harmed, without an intimate association.
* Parasitism: an intimate association where one partner benefits, while harming a specific host
89
What is the aim of wasterwater treatment?
1. To remove organic majer
• decrease BOD (biological oxygen demand)
• BOD is increased by organic contamination,
increased competition for dissolved O2
2. To reduce bacterial load and human pathogens
90
Which steps of wastewater treatments are there?
1. To remove organic majer
• decrease BOD (biological oxygen demand)
• BOD is increased by organic contamination,
increased competition for dissolved O2
2. To reduce bacterial load and human pathogens
91
Which steps of wastewater treatments are there and what are the goals for them?
Primary treatment
Goal: removal of particulate majer
2. Secondary treatment
Goal: oxidation of dissolved organic compounds, most organic majer converted to CO2 or microbial cells
3. TerEary treatment (mostly not employed due to costs)
Goal: reduces inorganic nutrients (nitrate, phosphate, etc).
92
Hvilken from for carbon fixering laver Green sulfur bakterier
Reductive (reveerse) TCA cycle
93
hvilke bakterier laver calvin cycle
Cyanobakterier, purple phototrophs og lithotrophs
94
hvilke bakterier laver 3 hydropropionate cycle?
green phototrophs fra bakterier aerobics sulfur oxidizers for archaea.
95
hvad er nettoreaktionen for 3-hydroxypropionate pathway , og hvad er slutproduktet og hvilke bakterier laver denne reaktion.
2 CO2 +4H + 3 ATP --> C2H2O3 +H2O, Pyruvate, bruges af thermophile.
96
hvilke bakterier laver reductive acetyl-CoA pathway. Og hvad er det specielle ved denne.
anaerobiske jord bakterier, autotrophiske sulfat reduceres og methan producerende bakterier.
Den reducerer H2 istedet for NADPH
97
Hvordan fungere reverse TCA? Og hvad udfører reduktionen og hvad reduceres
Den reducerer CO2, for at kunne lave acetyl-CoA for at kunne opbygge sukker. Reduktionen udføres af NADPH eller NADH og reducere ferrodoxin.
98
Hvad er værts kolonarisering?
Det humane mikrobielle samfund er normalt beskyttende for værten
* Det humane mikrobiome forhindrer kroppen i at være koloniseret af andre, mere skadelige parasitter
* Nogle arter fra det humane mikrobiom forårsager lejlighedsvis sygdom
* Nogle arter kan blive alvorlige patogener, hvis de kommer til andre områder af kroppen.
* Andre arter kan være alvorlige patogener i deres normale niche, hvis forholdene tillader dem at sprede sig til en større end normalt omfang
99
Hvilke strategier har bakterier for at undgå værtsforsvaret?
dele sig indeni værtsceller og dermed undgår de blive optaget via fagocytose (optagelse af store partikler i en celle)
- overført celle til celle ved hjælp af værtscellecytoplasma
• Beskyttelse med kapsler
- forhindrer genkendelse af immunsystemet
100
Hvad består immumforsvaret af?
Fysiske / kemiske barrierer
- hud og slimhinder
- cilierede celler i luftvejene - mavesyrer og galdesalte
Beskyttelse mod succesrige angribere
- lavt tilgængeligt jern - fagocytter
- beskyttende proteiner
```
Fagocyter: dræber og fordøjer indvaderende mikroorganismer. Der er 2 store typer af celler der har fuktion som fagocyter er:
Macrofager
Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs)
```
101
Beskriv macrofager
```
Lymfocyt b-celler
Findes over alt i kroppen
Lever længe
Har mitrokondrier
Har oxidativ metabolisme
```
102
beskriv Polymorphononuclear neutrophils (PMNs)
```
leukocyt hvide blodlegme
Findes mest I blodet
De forlader blodbanden for at side ved aktive infektioner.
Lever kort, men bliver erstatet.
Mangler mitrokondrier
Fermentere glukose.
```
103
Hvad er en lymfocyt?
b-celler
104
hvad er en leukocyt?
Hvide blodlegemer
105
hvor findes antimikrobielle peptider?
de laves af mange slags og findes i alle dyr
| • En række forskellige væv udskiller antimikrobielle proteiner. - et konstitutive forsvar
106
hvilke antimikrobielle proteiner findes der?
enzymer og antimikrobielle peptider (AMP'er)
107
hvad inkluderer antimikrobielle enzymer
- lysozym, et enzym, der hydrolyserer murein
| - phospholipaser, der hydrolyserer esterbindingerne i phospholipider.
108
hvordan opstår en inflammation og hvordan reagere kroppen.
• bakterier introduceres af et snit i huden
- beskadigede celler frigiver cytokiner og kemokiner
- dette tiltrækker makrofager fra de første residente
- senere rekrutteres neutrofile fra kapillærerne (ekstravasation)
109
hvad er anthrax og hvad hedder bakterien der forudsager den?
Miltbrand, forårsages af bakterien Bacillus anthracis 1
• Anthrax er primært en zoonose hos større planteædere som får, kvæg, heste og svin; den forekommer dog også hos vilde dyr
110
hvad skyldes en listeriainfektion?
Listeriainfektion er en fødevarebåren sygdom, der skyldes bakterien Listeria monocytogenes. Infektionen kan vise sig som blodforgiftning eller meningitis hos personer, der har nedsat immunforsvar.
111
hvad er en pneumokoksygdom?
De alvorligste sygdomme, der forårsages af pneumokokker, f.eks. meningitis, lungebetændelse, mellemørebetændelse og bihulebetændelse.
112
hvad er kolera? og hvad er mekanismen bag?
Kolera er en akut, vandig diarrésygdom som forårsages af bakterien Vibrio cholerae
cholera toxin subunit A aktiverer permanent adenylat cyclase
• høje cAMP-koncentrationer i cellen inhiberer Na + -pumpen
• Cl- går tabt i tarmens lumen, og vand følger den
113
hvad forårsager oftes værtskader
af overreaktion af værtsforsvar
* Høj koncentration af inflammatoriske og immunmodulatorer på stedet for mikrobielt angreb fremkalder reaktioner, der beskadiger sunde celler
* Modulatorer kan også diffundere fra infektionsstederne for at producere systemiske virkninger, såsom feber
114
hvad er lipid A ?
En del af LPS og findes i gram negative bakterier
Handler på:
• Makrofager til at producere cytokiner og inducere feber.
• Neutrofiler til at producere forbindelser, der udvider blodkar, der forårsager ødemer og chok
• Komplementeringssystem for at inducere dets aktivering, forårsage betændelse
115
hvad er et antibiotikum?
kemisk forbindelse secerneret af mikrobe, som er giftig for andre mikrober.
Anvendes ofte mere generelt til enhver kemisk forbindelse med antimikrobielle egenskaber.
116
nævn nogle specifikke tagets for antibiotika:
Cell wall crosslinks (Penicillin, Vancomycin )
DNA gyrase (bakterielt enzym, der kan kløve DNA ødelægges af Ciprofloxacin)
Protein synthesis (Streptomycin)
Folic acid synthesis (bakteterier er nødt til at have folic acid for at kunne vokse) (Sulfanilidamide)
117
hvordan skaber bakterier resistente over for antibiotikum?
1) Undgå indtræden af agent
- skifter cel envelope og kapsel
- relativt uspecifikke
2) efflux-mekanismer (pumper penicilinen udigen.
- relativt uspecifik
3) intracellulær ødelæggelse af agent
- normalt specifikke
- kræver større ændringer (gen overførsel)
4) Ændring af målet
- meget specifik
- undertiden en mindre ændring (enkelt basepar mutation)
- kan allerede være til stede i store populationer (109)
118
Hvilke former kan former have?
kugle, rod, spiral, krøllede og grenede!
119
Hvad indeholder en celle.
75 % vand, derudover protoner, RNA lipider.
120
Hvilke hovedfunktioner har celle membranen?
permeabel barierer
protein tilhæfter
energi konservator:
121
Hvad er forskellen på Archaea og bakterier med hensyn til deres cellemembran?
baktier er fatty acid ester linked til glycerol O=c-o-c. Archeae har ether fatty acid linked til glycerol. C-O-C
122
Hvad har bakterier for at holde deres cellemembran flydende?
Bakterier har Hopanoid i stedet for cholesterol til at regulere der membrans flyedeevne og stivhed.
123
Hvad har arhaea for at holde deres cellemembran flydende?
glycorol-dialkyl-glycerol-tetraether til at regulere fluidity.
124
Hvilken funktion har celle væggen?
forhindre cellen I at bræste under vand optag. Da der er et højt osmotisk tryk i cellen vil den optage vand.
125
beskriv gram farvning!
først "brændes bakterierne fast, der efter skyldes de med crystal violet. Alle celler er violette.
derefter tilføjes en jod opløsning. Alle celler er stadig violette.
derefter skyldes med alkohol. gram positiv er stadig violette, gram negativ er farve løse.
derefter farver ,am ,ed safranin. dermed er gram negativ røde og fram positiv er violette.
126
hvad har archaea i celle væggen?
pseudomurein i stedet for peptiglykagen i celle væggen, andre gange har de ande polysaccarider. Der udover har de s-layer .
127
Hvad er cel-lysis?
Celle burst.
128
hvad er penicillin target i mod? og hvad er ulempen?
Penesilin targeter celle vægs syntese (transpeptidation) . Dette er smart, da mennesker celler ikke har nogen cellevæg. Dette virker dog kun på voksende celler, så hvos cellerne er i dvale har det ingen virkning.
129
hvad er lysozym?
Lysozym er et antimikrobielt enzym der dannes af dyreceller, og påvirker transpeptidation.
130
Hvad hedder archaeas flageller?
Archaella
131
Hvad er hami?
Phili men med små kroge. Gruppen euyarchaea har dem.
132
Hvad et et plasmid?
Plasmid er et lille stykke enkelt- eller dobbelt-strenget DNA som i en bakterie eller encellet prokaryot kan kopieres uafhængigt af cellens replikation.
133
hvad er forskellen på mitose og meiose
Ved almindelig celledeling (mitose) deles en celle i to nye celler, ved reduktionsdeling (meiose) dannes i alt fire celler med halveret kromosomtal (dette sker ved dannelse af kønsceller).
134
Hvad bruger bakterier Carbon til?
Protein, RNA, DNA, MEmbranes og peptidoglycan
135
Hvad bruger bakterier Nitrogen til?
Protein, RNA, DNA og peptidoglycan
136
Hvad bruger mikroorgansimer fosfor til?
RNA, DNA membraner
137
hvad fandt antoni van leeuwenhoek på
En single lens microscope
meget god linse
70 x til 270 forstørrelse
skabe den første beskrivelse af mikrobs
138
Hvilke typer favning bruger vi?
```
gram
spore
capsule
DNA
Live-dead
```
139
Hvad fandt Louis joblot ud af?
at microbes kan spontane opstå.
140
hvad fandt louis pasteur ud af?
at microorganismer kan være luftførte.
141
hvad fandt john tyndall ud af?
varme resistente bakterier.
142
Hvad lavede vi i Exercise A?
Microscopy af bacteria?
Phase constrast
1000 x forstørrelse
143
Hvad lavede vi i exervise B?
```
Fermentation (metabolisme)
fortyndingsrække
Clean Streak
Fermentationstest
PCR
```
De er anaerobe
De kan tolerere o2, men for at vokse skal de have anoxiske forhold.
Vi tjekkede for gas udvikling for at se hvilken fermentation de brugte – men der var ingen. Kig på heterofermentative og homofermentative bakterier. Homofermatation ville man forvente at finde.
Hvis der var heterofermentative vil der blive produceret ethnaol, og det ville vidst ikke være så godt for arla….
144
Hvad lavede vi i Exercise C?
Airborne bakteria
preparation of agar plates
antibiotic resistens test
```
Derudover:
Colny count
Shape of coloies
Pigmentation of colonies
Exopolymer production
Microscopy
Gram staining
```
145
Hvad lavede vi i Exercise D=
enrichment og nitrogen-fiserene saktere fra jord (metabolisme, Azotobacker)
Clean streak
blæk farvning af kapsler
146
hvad lavede vi i exersice E?
mikrobiel vækst med og uden penicillin.
Celle culture density målt med turbidity?
bestemelse af CFU
147
hvad lavede vi i exercise G?
enrichment of clostridia (anaerobe bakterier)
| sporefavning
148
hvad lavede vi i exervise H?
gramfarvning
149
hvad lavede vi i exervise I?
vigtigste processer i spildevands behandling
| Carbon cycles og nitrogen cycles.
150
Hvad er forskellen på homofermenation og heterofermentaion
Mælkesyrebakterier mangler enzymet katalase samt cytokromer og kan derfor ikke danne det energibærende molekyle ATP ved elektrontransport ATP dannes i stedet ved fermentering af kulhydrater; Lactobacillus, Lactococcus og Streptococcus danner udelukkende mælkesyre (de er homofermentative), mens fx Leuconostoc er heterofermentativ og danner både mælkesyre og ethanol. De homofermentative bakterier danner mælkesyre ved nedbrydning af glukose via glykolyse, og for hvert omsat glukosemolekyle dannes to molekyler ATP. De heterofermentative bakterier mangler enzymet aldolase, der indgår i glykolysen, og de nedbryder derfor glukose via pentosefosfatcyklus, som resulterer i dannelsen af CO2, ethanol og mælkesyre samt et molekyle ATP.
151
hvad betyder DNRA
Dissimilatory nitrate redukction to ammonium.
152
Hvilke bakterier laver sulfat oxidation?
grøn og purpel bakterier.
