mixed epiestomolgy

Question 1

What is epistemology?

Answer 1

The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge.

Question 2

What is direct realism?

Answer 2

The view that we perceive the world directly as it is; physical objects exist independently of the mind.

Question 3

What are the main problems with direct realism?

Answer 3

Illusion, hallucination, perceptual variation, and time-lag suggest our perception is not always direct or accurate.

Question 4

What is indirect realism?

Answer 4

The view that we perceive the external world indirectly through sense-data caused by real objects.

Question 5

What are sense-data?

Answer 5

Mental representations or appearances that mediate our perception of the external world.

Question 6

What is the veil of perception?

Answer 6

The problem that we only perceive sense-data, not the world directly, raising doubts about the existence of the external world.

Question 7

What is idealism?

Answer 7

The view that physical objects are collections of ideas in minds; they do not exist independently of perception.

Question 8

How does Berkeley defend idealism?

Answer 8

He argues that all we ever perceive are ideas, and unperceived objects continue to exist because God perceives them.

Question 9

What is a key criticism of idealism?

Answer 9

It leads to solipsism and denies the existence of a mind-independent world.

Question 10

What is rationalism?

Answer 10

The belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and that some knowledge is innate or a priori.

Question 11

What is empiricism?

Answer 11

The view that all knowledge comes from sense experience; the mind starts as a blank slate.

Question 12

What are innate ideas?

Answer 12

Ideas or knowledge that exist in the mind from birth, not derived from experience.

Question 13

How does Locke argue against innate ideas?

Answer 13

He says there are no universally agreed ideas, and the mind is a “tabula rasa”—a blank slate.

Question 14

What is Leibniz’s reply to Locke?

Answer 14

The mind is like veined marble; experience helps uncover what is already innately structured.

Question 15

What is Descartes’ cogito argument?

Answer 15

“I think, therefore I am”—a foundational a priori truth known through reason alone.

Question 16

What is a priori knowledge?

Answer 16

Knowledge gained independently of sensory experience.

Question 17

What is a posteriori knowledge?

Answer 17

Knowledge gained through sense experience.

Question 18

What is an analytic truth?

Answer 18

A truth that is true by definition, such as “All bachelors are unmarried.”

Question 19

What is a synthetic truth?

Answer 19

A truth that is not true by definition and requires experience or observation to verify.

Question 20

What is a necessary truth?

Answer 20

A truth that could not possibly be false.

Question 21

What is a contingent truth?

Answer 21

A truth that could have been otherwise.

Question 22

What is Hume’s fork?

Answer 22

The idea that all knowledge is either a relation of ideas (a priori) or matters of fact (a posteriori).

Question 23

What is Kant’s synthetic a priori knowledge?

Answer 23

Knowledge that is both necessarily true and informative about the world, known independently of experience (e.g., “7 + 5 = 12”).

Question 24

How do rationalists view mathematical knowledge?

Answer 24

As certain and a priori, gained through reason, not experience.

Question 25

How do empiricists explain concept formation?

Answer 25

Through sense impressions combined into ideas via experience.

Question 26

What is the argument from universality for innate ideas?

Answer 26

The claim that some ideas (e.g., morality) are universal and therefore innate.

Question 27

What is the empiricist response to the universality argument?

Answer 27

Universality can be explained by shared experiences or common education, not innateness.

Question 28

How does reason address skepticism?

Answer 28

Rationalists claim certain truths (e.g., the cogito) are indubitable and provide a foundation for knowledge.

Question 29

What is the problem of perceptual variation?

Answer 29

The same object appears differently to different observers, suggesting we don’t perceive it as it really is.

Question 30

What is the time-lag argument?

Answer 30

We perceive objects as they were, not as they are now, due to the delay in sensory information (e.g., light from stars).

Question 31

What is the argument from hallucination?

Answer 31

Since hallucinations can be indistinguishable from genuine perception, perception might not be of real objects.

Question 32

What is the argument from illusion?

Answer 32

Illusions show that perception can misrepresent reality, challenging direct realism.