MLA

Question 1

What’s Naismith law

Answer 1

Naismith’s Rule is:
calculation of the time taken for a hill walk.
fit and steady walker:
15 min/km or 4 k/Hr
Flat distance
Ascent 10 mins per 100 metres or 1 min/10metres

Question 2

What 3 variables should be considered
when managing risk

Answer 2

People
Terrain
Weather

Question 3

Name 5 heuristic traps.

Answer 3

Rule of thumb decisions
Familiar - Always done.
Social - peer pressure
Scarcity - Window of opportunity
Commitment- Need to achieve

Question 4

What are the 3 grades of rock scramble

Answer 4

Rock-scrambling grades
Grade 1 : easy rock-scrambles. fairly straightforward for most experienced hillwalkers. …
Grade 2 (ML Rope) : moderate rock-scrambles. require the hands to be used for more sustained
sections. …

Grade 3 : advanced rock-scrambles

Question 5

What grade of ground is suitable for ML steep ground management?
What grade would be managed?
What grade would be roped?

Answer 5

Broken rocky terrain.
Both grade 1 & 2
NEVER grade 3 - Experienced climbers only!
Grade 1 - Spotting, foot placing, shepherding - Front - middle - back.
Grade 2 - Rope out. Confidence roping -
Quality decision making.

Question 6

What is the first golden rule of anchor selection?
What are the 5 x S’s of anchor selection?

Answer 6

The anchor selected must be ‘ unquestionable ‘
Size (fetal position)
Stable Level (not on a slope) Kick, with hand on
Shape Work in direction of load. See-saw test.
Sharpness Well-weathered - smooth - padded out.
Situation In line with steep ground - far enough from edge.

Question 7

What is a cloud?
How is it formed?

Answer 7

A collection of tiny droplets of water or ice crystals.

All air contains water thus (H2O)

When warm air rises it expands and cools.

Cold air can’t hold as much water vapour as warm air so some of the vapour condenses in the atmosphere and forms water droplets.

When billions of droplets come together, they become a visible cloud.

Question 8

How many families of cloud identification are there? Name them?

How types are they composed of ?

Name them?

Answer 8

Luke Howard identified characteristic Three main families.
HL
ML
LL

With descriptive Latin names, which led to a more universal system.

Add in attributes such as rain-bearing or height in the sky and we get the ten basic cloud groups.

Cirro-Stratus - Grey spread - halo effect
Cirro - Cumulus - Curly - Fluffy
Cirrus - Streaky - fine weather

Alto-Strattus
Alto-Cumulus

Nimbo-Stratus
Stratton-Cumullus
Stratus
Cumullus
Cumulus-Nimbus

Certainly! Here are the meanings of the Latin words:

1. Cirro: This likely refers to cirrus clouds, which are thin, wispy clouds typically found at high altitudes.
2. Cirrus: Also referring to cirrus clouds, they are characterized by their wispy, feathery appearance and form at high altitudes.
3. Alto: This refers to alto clouds, which are middle-level clouds found at altitudes between approximately 2 to 7 kilometers (6,500 to 23,000 feet). Examples include altocumulus and altostratus.
4. Stratus: This refers to stratus clouds, which are low-level clouds characterized by their uniform, grayish appearance covering the sky like a blanket. They often bring overcast skies and light precipitation.

Question 9

Describe Cirrus clouds?
What weather do they predict?

Answer 9

High clouds and so high up they’re composed of ice crystals instead of water droplets.

These thin, wispy clouds get blown by high winds into long streaks

Latin for lock or “curl” of hair. Cirrus clouds are usually white and predict fair to pleasant weather.

Often cirrus clouds indicate a change in the weather will occur within 24 hours.

Question 10

Describe Cirrus stratus clouds?

Answer 10

Cirrostratus
Sheet-like clouds that often cover the entire sky spanning thousands of miles and they are thin enough that the sun or moon can be seen through them.

They sometimes produce white or coloured rings, spots or arcs of light around the sun or moon known as halo phenomena. They usually come 12 to 24 hours before a rain or snowstorm.

Question 11

Describe Cirrocummulus clouds?

Answer 11

These appear as small, rounded white puffs in long rows.

They are relatively rare, tend to be seen in winter and indicate fair but cold weather.

Question 12

MLC

Describe Altostratus clouds?

Answer 12

Now we get a bit closer to earth with the medium-level clouds.

Altostratus
A grey blanket
These grey clouds are composed of ice crystals and water droplets and usually cover the entire sky. In thinner areas the sun may be dimly visible as a round disc. Altostratus often forms ahead of storms so are associated with approaching weather fronts.

Question 13

Describe Altocumulus clouds?

Answer 13

Altocumulus
Altocumulus are mostly made of water droplets and appear as rounded lumps, usually forming in groups.

If you see altocumulus clouds on a warm, sticky morning get ready for some rumbles of thunder in the afternoon.

Question 14

Describe
Nimbostratus clouds?
What weather are they associated with?

Answer 14

Nimbus is the Latin word for rain. Described as “a horizontal sheet’’

These are dark grey, featureless layers of cloud.

Blocks out the sun and associated with continuously falling rain or snow.

Question 15

Describe Stratus clouds?
What weather does it bring?

Answer 15

Uniform featureless grey clouds often cover the entire sky.

Usually found around mountains, it’s one of the lowest forming clouds.

Light mist or drizzle often falls from these clouds and when stratus lowers all the way to the ground it’s called fog.

Question 16

Describe Stratocumulus
clouds?

Answer 16

Low, puffy and grey. Most of these clouds form in rows with blue sky visible between.

Rain rarely occurs with stratocumulus; however, they can turn into nimbostratus.

Question 17

Describe Cumulus
clouds?

What weather do they predict?

Answer 17

known as fair-weather clouds
white, puffy clouds with tops like cauliflowers often form on sunny days

They typically appear late in the morning, grow and change, before dissipating into the evening. But they can grow upwards and become towering cumulus (cumulus congestus) and eventually develop into giant thunderstorm clouds known as…

Question 18

Describe Cumulusnimbus
clouds?

Answer 18

The big baddy of the skies – it may well have a base in the low category, but it can grow all the way to the top of the troposphere.

These thunderstorm clouds are associated with heavy rain, snow, hail, lightning and even tornadoes.

The top of the cloud is formed of ice crystals that get blown into an anvil shape by high winds, indicating the direction in which the storm is moving.

Question 19

When considering Wind whilst planning expos. What is the affect different speeds and what modifications should be made?

Winds below 30 Mph?

Winds below 30 - 40 Mph?

Winds below 50 Mph?

What are the two factors to be considered about wind.

What are the safety implications?

Answer 19

Mountain conditions

When planning a route, wind speed and direction are very important as strong winds can seriously affect enjoyment and safety, literally stop you in your tracks or blow you over.

This could cause severe injury or worse on rocky, exposed or steep terrain.

Gusts over 30 or 40mph can affect your balance so it is advisable to avoid exposed ridge lines or getting too close to cliff edges in those conditions.

In winds of over 50mph, it becomes difficult to walk and above 70mph any forward progress becomes almost impossible!

Plan a route to make the best of a following wind when up high or, if conditions will change through the day, time the low-level part of the route to coincide with the stronger winds.

Low cloud and visibility

Rain and snow

Precipitation often falls heavier in the UK hills and mountains due to orographic enhancement and can come and go very quickly. A good day out can still be enjoyed with the correct clothing and equipment if winds are light, especially on lower level routes. However, heavy and persistent rain or snow, very poor visibility and exposure to strong winds can make for difficult and dangerous conditions with a risk of hypothermia. Beware of streams and rivers rising through the day – an easy crossing on the way out may be impassable on the return.

Ground conditions

Deep and soft snow will dramatically slow down walking speed so must be taken into account when planning. Areas of frozen snow or ice can be impassable and dangerous; ice axes and crampons and being skilled in the proper use them is essential in those conditions. During the winter season Be Avalanche Aware and consult avalanche forecasts where available (SAIS). Lake District Fell Top Assessors also provide daily ground conditions reports in winter.

Mountain safety videos

The Met Office, in conjunction with the Welsh Government, British Mountaineering Council, Mountain Leader Training and Sports Wales, have produced a series of short videos on the skills you will need throughout the year and how to stay safe on the mountains.

Question 20

Mountain conditions
Low cloud and visibility- what are the factors

Answer 20

Low cloud often forms on hills due to air being forced to rise, cool to its dew point and condense into water droplets to form cloud.

When the cloud base lowers onto the ground, visibility is usually less than 50 metres.

Snow cover combined with low cloud or heavy snow can lead to dangerous whiteout conditions with effectively zero visibility and no distinction between the ground and sky. You could be standing right next to a cliff edge and not know it is there! Even expert navigators can struggle in those conditions.

Question 21

Mountain conditions
Air Temperature - with height gain.

Does temperature decrease or increase with height gain?

What is this known as?

Air cools by 1 degree per how many meters?

Answer 21

Temperature

The air temperature usually decreases as height is gained, known as the lapse rate. (It’s cold up their)

On average around 2°C of cooling per 300 metres of climb.

However, the wind chill factor can make it feel much colder at height compared to down in the valleys, especially when winds combine with low cloud, rain, sleet or wet snow.

It is important to keep any wind and dampness away from the skin by wearing wind-proof and waterproof clothing. Beware of the signs and symptoms of hypothermia.

Question 22

What does Orographic enhancement mean?

What effect does it have on the Windward and leeward side of a mountain?

Answer 22

Orographic enhancement refers to the increase in precipitation in mountain.

Lifted by the ascent of mountains, air rises, it cools, leading to condensation and precipitation.

This phenomenon often results in higher levels of rainfall or snowfall on the windward side ( exposed to prevailing wind) slopes compared to the leeward (protected or reverse of windward ) side.

Question 23

Weather Isobars. Give three key factors about Isobars.

Answer 23

Isobars are lines drawn on weather maps to connect points of equal atmospheric pressure.

Isobars closer together indicate a steeper pressure gradient, which usually means stronger winds.

By observing the distribution and spacing of isobars, meteorologists can infer information about wind speed, wind direction, and weather systems such as high and low-pressure areas.

Question 24

Weather - Low-pressure systems
Describe the mechanism and effect on weather that these systems produce?

Answer 24

Low and high-pressure systems play a significant role in shaping weather patterns:

1. Low-pressure systems: These are associated with rising air and typically bring unsettled weather. As air rises, it cools and condenses, leading to cloud formation and often precipitation. Low-pressure systems are commonly linked to cloudy skies, rain, thunderstorms, and sometimes severe weather such as hurricanes or cyclones.

The movement and interaction of low and high-pressure systems across a region are key drivers of day-to-day weather changes, influencing factors such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, and precipitation.

Question 25

Weather how low and high pressure is created.

Answer 25

Low and high-pressure systems in weather are primarily created by differences in temperature and air density. 1. **Low-pressure areas**: When air near the Earth's surface is heated, it becomes less dense and rises. As the air rises, it cools and expands, which lowers its pressure. This process creates a region of relatively lower pressure compared to the surrounding air. Low-pressure systems are often associated with warm air rising and can be triggered by factors such as the heating of the land surface, convergence of air masses, or the presence of weather fronts. 2. **High-pressure areas**: Conversely, when air near the Earth's surface cools, it becomes denser and sinks. As the air sinks, it warms and compresses, leading to an increase in pressure. This results in a region of relatively higher pressure compared to the surrounding air. High-pressure systems are typically associated with sinking air and can form due to factors such as cooling of the land surface, divergence of air masses, or the presence of anticyclones. The movement and interaction of these pressure systems are influenced by various factors, including the Earth's rotation, the distribution of land and water, and the global atmospheric circulation patterns.

Question 26

What are the main features of a weather map?

Answer 26

Isobars Isobars are the plain lines curving across the map. They connect points with the same mean sea level air pressure (weight per square area of air above). Some isobars have numbers on them showing this value in hectopascals (hPa). Isobars indicate the flow of air around weather systems. You can broadly interpret wind strength and direction from these maps. The general rule is that winds are strongest where the isobars are closest together. The strongest winds are usually near cold fronts, low pressure systems. Winds are normally light near high pressure systems where the isobars are widely spaced.

Question 27

Fronts How is a Cold front depicted on a weather map? What colour is the line and what syballs? Is cold air less or more dense? What effect does a cold front moving forward have on warm air? What is the meteorological outcome?

Answer 27

A cold front is the boundary between warm air and relatively cooler air. On the weather map it appears as a blue line with small blue triangles (originally chosen because they look like little icicles). As cold, dense air moves through, it wedges underneath the warmer air ahead of it. This causes the warm air to rise, cool and condense into cloud droplets. So, we normally expect to see a blanket of cloud on the leading edge of a cold front, which can produce fairly consistent rain.

Question 28

Warm front

Answer 28

Warm front On the weather map warm fronts appear as a red line with semi-circles (originally chosen because they look like a sun rising bringing warmth). Warm fronts progressively displace cool air with warmer air. Just like a cold front, the temperature change can be quite large once a warm front moves through, although it tends to happen more gradually than a cold front. Even though they bring warmer air, this doesn’t necessarily mean better weather. They can bring steady rainfall, grey skies and more humid conditions. If a cold front catches up with a slower-moving warm front, they may form an 'occluded front'. The mix of cold and warm air associated with an occluded front typically brings rainfall. An occluded front will appear as a purple line with triangles and semi-circles on the same side of the line.

Question 29

Stationary front

Answer 29

Stationary front If you see a front with alternating blue and red colours, triangles on one side and semi-circles on the other, this is a stationary front. There are different weather conditions on either side, but the boundary is hardly moving. Stationary fronts are mostly an issue for people directly underneath them, as rain can fall for a long time without moving away.

Question 30

Troughs

Answer 30

A trough appears on the weather map as a dashed blue line on the chart. It is an elongated area where atmospheric pressure is low relative to its immediate surroundings. Like cold fronts, troughs separate two different air masses (usually more moist air on one side and drier air on the other). As the trough moves towards the moist air it lifts it. This causes cloud or even showers and thunderstorms to develop. If the trough moves back in the other direction it will drag the moist air with it.

Question 31

What are air masses

Answer 31

Air masses affecting the British Isles The British Isles have variable weather that changes from day to day, between different regions and within different regions. Consequently, it is very difficult to predict or forecast the weather. The variability of weather and climate in different regions is due to the different air masses over the Isles. An air mass is a large body of air with uniform temperature and moisture characteristics and is usually thousands of kilometres wide. The temperature and moisture characteristics will depend on its point of origin and the journey it then takes over land or sea. It will remain over a place for a period of time and will then start to move. Each air mass brings with it these different characteristics, as shown in the map below.

Question 32

Four of the main air masses that affect the British Isles are?

Answer 32

Tropical maritime (warm and moist air) Air moves from the warm south Atlantic Ocean towards the south west of the British Isles. Mild conditions in the winter but wet weather in the summer. Brings clouds, drizzle and fog. Tropical continental (warm and dry air) Typically happens in the summer. Warm, dry air from North Africa and the Mediterranean bring warm, dry weather. Will bring mild conditions in the winter. Polar maritime (cold and moist air) The most common air mass, starting in the North Atlantic ocean. Brings unstable air that creates clouds. Can cause rainfall in the summer. Polar continental (cold and dry) Occurs more in the winter than the summer. Starts over north Europe and brings cold conditions in the winter but milder conditions in the summer. Can bring unstable air in the winter (producing snow) but usually just brings cool, dry conditions.

Question 33

Frontal depressions across the British Isles

Answer 33

Frontal depressions across the British Isles An area of low pressure is called a depression . It is low pressure because air is rising from the surface and as it rises, the air will cool and condense forming clouds and rainfall. Depressions therefore bring unsettled weather and rain. Winds are normally stronger too because as air rises, cold air rushes in to replace the air at the surface. The faster the air rises, the stronger the winds. These low-pressure systems form over the Atlantic Ocean and are carried across Britain by westerly winds. They are responsible for the UK's changeable weather.

Question 34

Depression formation

Answer 34

In the Atlantic Ocean, the cold polar maritime and warm tropical maritime air masses will meet. Where they meet is called the Polar Front. The lighter warm air will start to rise up over the denser, colder air and this creates an unstable area that will develop a front. Sequence of a depression The diagram shows a depression with a leading warm front and a trailing cold front moving from west to east across Britain. Rain occurs at both cold and warm fronts. The area between fronts is clear and dry.

Question 35

Key features of a depression

Answer 35

Key features of a depression Pressure – Low and falling (below 1000 mb ) towards the centre. - These are shown by the isobars on the weather map. Isobars are lines joining places of equal pressure. Temperature – Varies depending on the air mass passing overhead (and the time of year). Tm air brings warmer temperatures. Pm air brings cooler temperatures. Cloud cover – An ever-changing selection of clouds will change as the depression passes. The maximum amount of cloud will be when the cold front passes overhead. Wind speed and direction – Strong winds will usually blow in an anticlockwise direction around the depression. The depression weather system will usually move in an NE direction across the British Isles. Precipitation – There are variable amounts of rainfall as a depression passes. A depression usually takes about 5 days to pass and this can bring a wide variety of rain, sleet and snow during that time. Precipitation normally happens at the fronts. Sequence of a depression

Question 36

Anticyclones in the British Isles A high-pressure system is called an anticyclone

Answer 36

Anticyclones in the British Isles A high-pressure system is called an anticyclone . Air sinks in an anticyclone so no clouds are formed. This is because as the cold air sinks towards the Earth’s surface, it is warmed. Warm air expands and can hold more moisture than cold air. This means that condensation cannot happen and therefore neither cloud or rain can form. In all anticyclones, cold air in the upper atmosphere sinks and warms as it nears the Earth. This means that the air will expand and can hold more moisture. Therefore, the air will not be saturated and this means clouds cannot form. In Summer, a lack of clouds means the sun can shine directly onto the Earth’s surface and because the British Isles is closer to the Sun in the summer, this direct sunlight with long days can bring higher temperatures, gentle breezes and sometimes heatwaves. In Winter, when days are shorter and the British Isles is further from the Sun, the lack of cloud will mean bright days, but cold temperatures by day and very cold temperatures at night because any heat built up over the short hours of daylight, will escape back to space, which can lead to frost or fog forming.

Question 37

Key features of a summer anticyclone

Answer 37

Key features of a summer anticyclone Pressure – High and increasing (over 1000 mb ) Temperature – Very warm air will be brought over from continental Europe. This can bring hot, sunny days and ‘heatwave’ conditions. Cloud cover – Sinking air means that air is settled and clouds will not be formed. Temperatures at night will drop as heat will escape back into the atmosphere because there are no clouds to prevent it. Wind speed and direction – Isobars are spaced apart, there is very little wind and conditions will be calm due to a gentle pressure gradient. Any wind will rotate in a clockwise direction around the weather system. Precipitation – No precipitation but there can be mist in the morning, though this is usually burned off by the sun very quickly. Dew is found on grass in the morning due to overnight condensation.

Question 38

Key features of a winter anticyclone

Answer 38

Key features of a winter anticyclone Pressure – High and increasing (over 1000 mb) Temperature – Temperatures are much lower. The sun is low in the sky so there is less heating in the air. Cloud cover – Sinking air means that air is settled and clouds will not be formed. Temperatures at night will drop very quickly as heat will escape back into the atmosphere. This can cause freezing conditions – frost, fog and ice. Wind speed and direction – Isobars are not close together, there is very little wind and conditions will be calm. Any wind will rotate in a clockwise direction. Precipitation – No rain will fall as there are no clouds but there can be mist early in the morning and sometimes a temperature inversion near ground level will cause heavy fog. Frost would be unlikely as the air at the ground level will be warmer than overlying air.

Question 39

What is a Public Footpath? Who can and use a Public Footpath? What is a public bridleway? Who can use a public bridleway?

Answer 39

A public footpath is, as you might expect, a path that can be used only by walkers and runners. That right doesn’t extend to cyclists, horses or vehicles. A public bridleway (or bridle path) is accessible to cyclists and horse riders as well as walkers. It may be wider than a public footpath.

Question 40

What is the common misconception twixt scrambling and rock climbing?

Answer 40

Dispelling a Myth A common misconception held by newcomers is that scrambling is safer than rock climbing. This is incorrect. Most scramblers do not use rope or harnesses and some do not wear helmets either. Without such safety equipment, a fall can lead to serious injury or death.

Question 41

Weather - *High-pressure systems**: These are characterized and effect of these systems on weather?

Answer 41

2. **High-pressure systems**: These are characterized by sinking air, which inhibits cloud formation and precipitation. High-pressure systems generally bring stable weather conditions with clear skies and light winds. They are often associated with fair weather, sunny days, and

Question 42

What kind of front produces gentle rain showers?

Answer 42

What kind of front produces gentle rain showers? warm front A warm front moves slower than a cold air mass. The warm air rises steadily above the cooler air mass and causes gentle rain showers for longer periods of time.