Mock Flashcards
(67 cards)
1
Q
What were the reasons for the British Empire expanding into Africa? - Trade and Economy
A
Trade and the economy
The opening up of new routes inland and subsequent discovery of minerals and resources fuelled expansion in Africa. Better climates for agriculture. Coal, iron, timber sought to feed the demands of British industry. A cycle developed, British exploited Africa’s goods, to manufacture, and sell back to them.
2
Q
What were the reasons for the British Empire expanding into Africa? - Personal influence
A
Personal influence
Merchant-imperialists capitalised on new commodities and in the process found fame and fortune. Victorian explorers stimulated British public interest through publishing their findings.
3
Q
What were the reasons for the British Empire expanding into Africa? - Strategic factors
A
Strategic factors
Securing new territories secured trade routes. The Cape’s deep water port had advantages over other harbours. It protected sea routes to the middle east, china, Australia and India, giving considerable power over the sea routes to the East.
4
Q
What were the reasons for the British Empire expanding into Africa? - Moral factors
A
Moral factors
Christian missionaries saw it as their moral duty to spread their faith among non-Christian. They viewed the Empire as a force to civilise non Christians.
5
Q
What were the reasons for the British Empire expanding into Africa? - Exploration
A
By 1857, most of Africa had been added to European maps. Explorers located vast reserves of raw materials which European merchants sought to exploit and trade.
6
Q
Why did the British first become interested in Egypt?
A
Interest revived when British mills were starved of cotton during the American Civil War, and Egypt attracted those who needed this vital material. British companies invested in this and also invested in the modernising programme of the Khedive, Isma’il Pasha. Isma’il embarked on the cutting of the Suez Canal through Egypt to connect the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. This made the route to India 6000 miles shorter than via the Cape.
7
Q
What was the Suez Canal?
A
A Frenchman had obtained a concession from Egypt to create a company to construct a canal for international shipping. The Suez Canal Company was set up in 1858. It was completed in 1869, shares were made available internationally. Britain didn’t buy many. The canal had an immediate effect on world trade. Consequently, in 1875, when the Khedive was looking for a buyer for his country’s share in the canal for £4 million, Benjamin Disraeli (British prime minister), stepped forward. This gave the British greater control over its passage to India an income from shipping tariffs.
8
Q
What was the Brussels Conference, 1876 and what happened in it?
A
Held by King Leopold of Belgium(who wanted to protect his own interests in Congo). Concluded:
-Africans were incapable of developing the natural resources in central Africa, European intervention was necessary
-routes to Africa’s great lakes needed to be developed by building roads or railways
-An international African association should be established to coordinate the Europeans efforts.
European governments suspicious of Leopolds intentions. Became apparent he was intent on establishing his own empire. French and Germans asserted influence. French expanded control into Western Sudan in 1879 and Portugal to the congo river in 1884.
9
Q
What was the Berlin Conference, 1884-85 and what happened in it?
A
By 1884, a scramble for Africa had begun. There was need for regulation of European expansion. Otto von Bismarck hosted the Berlin Conference.
It concluded:
- All nations are permitted to trade in the basin of Congo and its outlets
- There should be free trade in these regions
- Powers in the area should protect indigenous people
- Effective occupation
Effective occupation meant powers could assert a claim to land that it ‘effectively’ occupied and notify other powers.
Triggered a further scramble for territory across Africa, by 1900 - 90% in European hands.
Successes - helped European relations (orderly fashion of expanding empires)
Drawbacks - violence perpetrated by Europeans on African communities. No African representation at the conference.
10
Q
What were relations with the Boers like from 1867-80?
A
- 2 Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. Boers were descendants of Dutch settlers
- European discovery of diamonds in West Griqualand, bordering the Orange Free State, increased friction. This triggered a diamond rush, attracting white and Bantu settlers.
- Both the British and Boers tried to exert control over this area which had become of great value to traders.
- British annexed the Transvaal in 1877, claiming they needed to defend the white settlers against the Pedi and Zulus.
- Boers accepted British aid and the British launched an invasion of Zululand in January 1879. Zulu army defeated the British so reinforcement were sent and Zululand was incorporated into Natal. They launched an attack of the Pedi who were also defeated.
- Once the Zulus were defeated, the Boers declared their independence from Britain in 1880
11
Q
What were relations with the Boers like from 1880-90?
A
- From 1880, Boers rejected British control, attacking British garrisons across the Transvaal.
- Boers had a series of victories - culminated in a humiliating British defeat at Majuba Hill 1881 where 150 Britons were killed.
- British therefore forced to sign the Convention of Pretoria, recognising Boer self-government in the Transvaal, but the British still had a right over external affairs.
- British annexed Bechuanaland between the Transvaal and German South West Africa to prevent the combining of German and Boer colonies.
- 1886, new gold discoveries at Witwatersrand. Gold was sought by trading companies and brought a mass of Uitlanders(non-Boer europeans) into the transvaal. Cecil Rhodes soght to enrich himself and extend the Empire. He wanted a British land route form Cape Town to Egypt.
- 1990: Rhodes South Africa Company forced Mashonaland under British control.
12
Q
What was treatment of the Bantu like 1857-90?
A
- Bantu peoples: general label for ethnic groups in Africa who speak Bantu languages include the Xhosa, Pedi and Zulu tribes.
- throughout the constant expansion and empire building, the bantu’s land was increasingly eroded. The discovery of gold increased wealth of the area but most was left with white settlers.
- Laws passed - black africans couldn’t have any claims over mines or trade their products. They therefore had to work manual labour.
- Black workers forced to stay in segregated neighbourhoods or mining compounds.
13
Q
How was trade managed from the middle of the 1900s?
A
- Mercantilism dominated 18th century empire, where colonies had to send all produce to Britain
- Free trade, meaning trade was free from any government interference
- Britain enforced free trade agreements with countries (using the British navy)
- Free trade saw imperial investment and trade grow enormously, 20% of Britain’s imports came from its colonies. London became the financial capital.
14
Q
Why was Britain the world’s foremost trading nation?
A
Its factories were producing heavy iron goods and textiles for a global market.
Colonies provided raw materials which British industry converted into finished goods for export which the colonies were often compelled to buy back.
15
Q
How were ships/shipping improved to facilitate trade and maximise profits?
A
Reached highest state of efficiency in the 1860s.
Clippers: Fast, smaller, Used to transport spices/luxuries/mail and people.
Steamships: Used to travel around the world and for bulkier produce.Compound steam ships developed in the 1850s used less coal and therefore made steam shipping more economical.
Steamship companies reduced the travel time between Britain and West Africa to less than 3 weeks and increased their cargo capacity.
16
Q
How were railways developed to facilitate trade and maximise profits?
A
The British provided the investment resulting in dependence on Britain, which could be used to pressurise governments.
- Railways provided vital links between rural areas of production and the sea.
- Opened up Canadian prairies, enabled Australian exportation of wheat and wool and allowed South Africa to expand its commercial interests inwards.
- However, railways often led to forced removals of indigenous peoples.
- In India, enabled rice to reach ports for export.
17
Q
How were canals and rivers improved to facilitate trade and maximise profits?
A
Uses: Used for trading products and were often the focus of explorers quests to discover what lay behind coastal areas.
- To facilitate trade, rivers sometimes had to be straightened, diverted and deepened. Canals were also built. New canals developed on a huge scale after 1857 to improve access between parts of India.
18
Q
What were the agricultural products of trade and commerce?
A
- Vast tracks of land in Canada, Australia and New Zealand permitting the production of cheap foodstuffs and raw materials. Produced goods available in Europe at a cheaper price.
- Tropical colonies produced goods not available in Britain such as sugar, coffee, cocoa and palm oil. Farmers were generally obliged to sell at whatever price they were offered which could fall very low.
- Products could be grown of plantations run by the British. Indian labourers, ‘coolies’, were transported to work in the Caribbean in return for their transport. There were plantations for tea in India, sugar in Mauritius and Nepal, rubber and palm oil in Malaya and more.
19
Q
What were the products trade and commerce from mining?
A
- Tin in Nigeria, Gold along the Gold Coast, Diamonds in Sierra Leone.
- Discovery of mineral deposits in central/south Africa brought colonial growth e.g. Rhodesia.
- The discovery that captured most attention in Britain was gold in South Africa. 1886 - gold found, prompted a gold rush to the previously poor Dutch-Boer republic of the Transvaal. 30000 skilled miners travelled there from Britain. This influx encouraged British ambitions in the area.
- Gold also discovered in Australia.
20
Q
What were the products of trade and commerce in industry?
A
Limited development of industry in colonies due to a small internal market and them not being able to compete in a world market with British manufacture. In India, Indian run mills couldn’t compete in price with imported British textiles leading to the destruction of the Indian textile industry.
- Undeveloped areas were propelled to modernise due to British capital and technology, but their independent economic development was curbed by how the British controlled and exploited their economies.
21
Q
What was the role of chartered companies?
A
Chartered companies were revived in the 1870s as a way of extending British trade and control
- 1881: North Borneo Trading Company received a charter to administer the territory
- 1886: Royal Niger Company. Permitted trade along the Niger and Beune rivers, gave , permission for expansion northwards, the company crucially served as government of the region.
- 1888: Imperial British East Africa Company
- 1889: British South Africa Company
Primary purpose of trading companies was to generate profit for shareholders in Britain which led to exploitation of local environments and peoples.
- Imperial Federation league(1884) founded to promote colonial unity
22
Q
How did the British establish control in Egypt?
A
- 1879 - Tewfiq becomes new Khedive, British keeping Egypt afloat
- Taxes imposed on Egyptian foods and goods and its army reduced by 2/3. This increased unemployment - led to nationalist rebellion. Anti-European members appointed to government positions.
- June 1882 - Political tensions spilled onto streets of Alexandria where violence claimed lives. Further revolts convinced William Gladstone (British prime minister) to intervene, British naval forces bombarded Alexandria.
- Arabi Pasha declares war, British forces able to secure the Suez Canal before defeating Arabi’s forces.
- British retook Cairo, restored Tewfiq as a puppet ruler.
- Major Evelyn Baring installed as Consul General, Tewfiq forced to create a government amendable to Britain, had British advise his military and had British advisers.
1885 Convention of London - Britain’s influence over Egypt confirmed - Egypt firmly under British administrative control - ‘ Veiled protectorate (Baring ruled through Egyptian ministers, aided by English ministers)
23
Q
How did Britain struggle to take control of the Sudan?
A
- Colonel Charles Gordon, Governor general of Sudan.
- British administrators faced opposition …
24
Q
How did control of India’s administration change from the British East India Company?
A
The expansion of British influence in India had originally been overseen by the British East India Company who added millions of subjects to the British Empire. Grievances among the Indian population sparked a rebellion of Indian sepoys serving in the East India Company in 1857. British troops were sent to support the East India Company (showing Britain’s desire to retain India at all costs). After the rebellion had been stopped, it was determined that a change of rule was necessary, the British decided to take control of India from the East India Company, which was dissolved.
25
What were the terms of the Government of India Act, 1858?
- East India Company's territories were passed to the Queen and the Company was dissolved.
- Position of Secretary of State for India was created, taking over duties formerly had by East India Company directors.
- A council of 15 members (the India Council), was appointed to assist the secretary of state for India and act as an advisory body in Indian affairs.
- The Crown appointed a Viceroy to replace the Company's Governor General
- Indian civil service placed under control of the Secretary of State.
26
What was the administration like during the years of the Raj? 1857-90
- Years of the Raj lasted from 1858-1948, priority of maintaining control.
- Queen Victoria made Empress of India as a symbol of British domination.
- Viceroy ruled India through a chain of British authority supported by an Indian Civil Service with Indians from high level posts.
- Running the Raj was maintained by British civil servants employed as members of the Indian Civil Service.
- The Viceroy relied on Indian rulers, in charge of Princely states, whose support was essential for the smooth running of India.
- Doctrine of lapse reversed. Increased princes loyalty.
- Bilingual Indians recruited across India's provinces. Acted to mediate between the British elite and the population.
27
What did the British do after the rebellion - socially?
- After the rebellion, attention was paid to traditional Indian customs and practices.
- Christian missionaries were discouraged.
- Development of public work schemes and transport, like a big railway network to facilitate British trade and profit, and the movement of British troops. Railways exagerated British presence and enabled swifter deployment of troops.
Yet the replacement of company rule by the Crown brought little tangible difference to Indian citizens. Englishmen still ran the country and local princes exercised power on behalf of the Raj.
28
How was the army in India changed to prevent another rebellion?
- 40000 British troops before rebellion, raised to 70000. Ratio of British of Indian troops was made 1:2.
- Regiments of Indian troops were trained and stationed in their own districts, cut off from one another to prevent a sense of unity. Regiments were mixed by caste and religion. More Gurkhas and Sikhs enlisted to army, as they were loyal to Britain during the rebellion, replacing Bengali troops who weren't.
- Number of British officers increased and field artillery placed in British hands. Indians placed under British commanders and denied officer ranking yet the British ordered to show more respect to Sepoy beliefs.
- Lord Canning set up an imperial police force as extra security.
29
How was British administration In India 1890-1914?
- Self rule was denied, though the British did seek to work with some local people. Wanted overall British control, partly as of a desire to uphold social Darwinist ideas
- 1909: representative government introduced.
- Viceroy was head backed by the Indian civil service(almost all white British). They ensured the regime was secure, the Indian's compliant and India profitable.
- Rule required collaboration of Indian population - India modernised(railways, education)
- More intervention in Indian life as there was economic and social development (economy developed as cities grew - more taxation). Indian Civil service 'divide and rule', emphasising divisions in India by race, religion, caste, etc, to maintain power as they couldn't group together against British authority.
- some educated Indians in some provincial councils, but created division between educated and illiterate masses to create Anglo-Indian elite.
- Viceroy Curzon was mindful to reform India and listen partly to their demands. Curzon improved the civil service and founded the Imperial Cadet Corps to appease elite figures with military training. He reformed universities, police, reduced taxes and introduced the gold standard for a stable currency. He helped in railway exapnsion, irrigation, agricultural development.
30
What was the partition of Bengal?
October 1905 - Curzon divided Bengal into two separate provinces, a Muslim majority (East Bengal and Assam) and a Hindu majority (West Bengal)
- This produced uproar among the Hindu elite of West Bengal as many of them owned land in East Bengal.
- There were strikes, protests and boycotts of British made goods.
- Surendranath Banerjee led campaigns and a new strand of nationalism developed(like the Swadeshi movement), which Curzon tried to stop by imposing strict censorship on the Indian press
- Curzon resigned 1905
31
What were the Morley-Minto reforms?
- Viceroy Minto came after Curzon.
- With the help of John Morley, Secretary of state for India, he introduced a programme of reforms in 1909 to appease the Bengalis....
32
How did the British expand into Kenya (British East Africa)?
- Kenya was partitioned into British sphere of influence at the Berlin Conference. It offered a route from the Coast to Uganda.
- British used a succession dispute to try to force their way into control.
- Arms were taken up against the British, took them months to crush. The leader fled and Kenya became part of Britain's East Africa's protectorate.
33
How did the British expand into Sudan? (British East Africa)
- The Fashoda Incident
- Gladstone wanted troops to be withdrawn from Egypt when it was safe to do so, but Salisbury, the prime minister, believed Egypt was vital to the security of Britain's sea route to India and so he wanted to reconquer parts of the Sudan. He was also worried about interest from other powers in Sudan, like the French and German trying to take the Nile headwaters.`
- There were Italian forces defeated at Adowa, which gave Salisbury the excuse he needed for a British campaign in Sudan.
- General sir Herbert Kitchener was given orders to penetrate Sudanese territory, but he wanted to go further than instructed and conquer the whole region. His army won a victory at the battle of Omdurman in 1898.
- Kitchener was then given sealed orders by Salisbury to go to Fashoda on the Nile, where a French expedition had arrived. Both Kitchener and the French pressed their claims to the area. The British press reacted strongly to the incident, suggesting Britain and France were on the brink of war. The French government backed down as they were facing internal problems. 1899 agreement that the French would stay out of the Nile for territory further West.
- 1899, Agreement between Britain and Egypt's veiled protectorate, where Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was established. Arrangement known as a condominium, where the Sudan would be ran by the British with Egyptian support. Lord Kitchener appointed as first governor- general.
34
How did British policy in Africa change after 1890?
- Until the 1880's, the British had established bases for strategic value or for trade, like reacting to other powers, and claiming areas where traders had already established themselves. British policy had been cautious.
- This changed as Imperial attitudes in Britain had an affect.
- The conservative government (elected 1895) wanted to uphold Britain's position in every part of the world
- Imperialism became more organised. British protectorates expanded to protect pre-existing territories while new territories were taken to limit advance of Europeans.
35
How did Britain expand Africa from 1890-14?
British occupied territory was converted into British protectorates or colonies in the years 1890-1914. The occupation of territories by chartered companies (which produced evidence of effective occupation) gave way to formal control from the 1890s.
The British expanded through treaties, intimidation and aggression. If investments were threatened by local crises or resistance, the British felt they had a right to take action, using force and coercion.
36
How did the British expand into Zanzibar (British East Africa)?
ZANZIBAR:
- Zanzibar was ceded to British influence through a treaty and it was declared a protectorate
- Puppet Sultan installed, he died and his cousin Khalid took his role without Britain's blessing
- Khalid refused to stand down, naval bombardment from Britain. Khalid overthrown and pro British sultan placed on the throne, where he ruled under British protection.
37
How did the British expand into Uganda (British East Africa)?
- Missionaries paved the way through Buganda throughout the 19th century
- Treaty between King Mwanga and British East Africa Company which gave power to the company. Later transferred to the crown in 1894, Buganda became a protectorate as part of Uganda.
- The British construction of the Uganda railway consolidated British formal takeover, it linked colonies and with the Indian ocean.
- The Railway workers worked in appalling conditions. The railway was justified as it enabled access to new markets, it encouraged colonial settlement, facilitated exports and promoted British tourism.
38
How did the British expand into Somaliland (British East Africa)?
Used administrative and military personnel to limit French and Italians in the area. Its location was important since it had access to the Indian Ocean for colonies in the East.
39
How did the British expand into Rhodesia (British South Africa)?
- 'South Zambesia', home to the Ndebele
- European discovery that there was gold in the region.
- Cecil Rhodes British South Africa Company established mining concessions, and was followed by white settlers with permission to create a British protectorate.
- First Ndebele war as they resisted, the king escaped and resistance continued , even though Rhodes named the area after himself.
- Second Ndebele War , unsuccessful rising against colonial rule - British control
40
How did the British expand control into Nyasaland (British South Africa)?
- Had been opened up by Livingstone and settled by Scottish missionaries. They however faced Portuguese backed Arab attacks.
- The protectorate was formally ratified by the British government in 1891
- Indigenous resistance continued
- Became a protectorate in 1907
41
How did the British expand control into the Cape Colony (British South Africa)?
- In 1895, gold seeking Uitlanders of the Transvaal were being denied citizenship and voting rights by the Boer government under Paul Kruger, sought the help of Cecil Rhodes.
- A raid was launched on the Transvaal from British Rhodesia by Dr Jameson. The raid brought discredit to the British and made the Boers want to resist British intrusions. Kruger became a hero and the Boers in the Cape formed an anti-British 'Afrikaner Bond' to show solidarity with Transvaal Boers,
- Joseph Chamberlain didn't want British influence to be weakened. There were negotiations with the Boers but these broke down in 1899 when...
- the Boers invaded British territory. Began the Second Boer War. Boers had success at first but British brought troops from the Empire and took the power from the Boers in 1900. British 'scorched earth' policies were designed to remove civilian support for the Boers by burning farms, to decimate supplies of food and shelter for soldiers and civillians. Many people were put into concentration camps where thousands died from hunger and disease. Boers were defeated in 1902.
- Peace of Vereeniging of May 1902 ended the war. Boer republics became british colonies. Self government was granted in 1905.
- 1908, Orange free state, transvaal, cape colony, natal became the 'union of south Africa' and so it became a single British territory.
42
What was the Jameson Raid?
- A raid launched by Dr Jameson on the Transvaal from British Rhodesia. The Uitlanders pulled away from their planned rising against the Boer government, but Rhodes still instructed Dr Jameson to invade the Transvaal. The raid was easily defeated and he was forced to surrender. Jameson was sentenced to imprisonment and Rhodes was forced to resign.
43
How did the Indian Rebellion begin in 1857 and what happened?
- Began among sepoys serving in the Bengal army.
- Traditional explanation is the cartridges they had been given for the new Enfield rifles had been greased in animal fat, which offended Muslims and Hindus.
- Other (more potentially real) triggers included the longstanding social and cultural grievances relating to British rule, and landlords who had been deprived of their land.
- Sepoys in Bengal refused to obey orders in Feb 1857 and others followed suit.
- Meerut - sepoys turned on British officers
- Sepoys seized control in northern cities. Attempt to resurrect the old Mughal Emperor(his sons were swiftly executed so remaining rebels lost any hope) They were joined by parts of the urban and rural population.
- Landowners who lost out under British rule joined and peasants who resented taxation.
- Dehli and Lucknow: villages burnt, rebels tortured and killed British officers wives and children.
- British rule reasserted in June 1858 after a final battle in Gwalior
44
What was the Impact on government and society in India after the Indian Rebellion?
- 1858: Indian passed into rule of the Crown. Had a single, centralised government.
- British tried to act in a more religiously sensitive way
- After 1858, a greater degree of separation set in
- The British imposed legal systems which favoured themselves, and didn't help the poor
- There were more educational opportunities for the wealthy, but little for the peasants
- The British built railways, though mainly for trade and control
- Markets built for Indian produce
- British developed irrigation schemes and land improvements - but these only took place where they supported British commercial interests
- British provided jobs for Indians yet only a minority could gain such employment which was racially segregated and physically demanding
-Poverty continued
- Universities and elite schools established
- Mary Carpenter helped established British teachers for Indian girls schools
- Some European style factories were built, though most of manufactured goods came from Britain
- Increase in substinence farning
45
How was Egypt controlled from 1890-1914?
- Veiled protectorate- British running Egyptian affiars. Not regarded as a colony, only under military occupation. Egypt still belonged to Turkey - under the Sultan.
- Capitulations - gave foreign citizens special privileges such as the right to worship, special tax status, and exemption from the jurisdiction of the local courts. It slowed down law making as Egyptian laws affecting Europeans had to be approved by governments of all countries represented in Egypt.
- The Caisse de la Dette(controlled by Austria Hungary, France, Germany, Russia, Italya nd Britain) - controlled Egypt's finances. Oversaw the repayment of foreign loans, primarily to European powers. Could prevent the British Consul General from spending Egypt's money on matters they disproved off.
- The Mixed Courts - Dealt with cases involving both Europeans and Egyptians and were presided over by both.
- Evelyn Baring, the british consul-general, acted as adviser to the Khedive. All Egyptian government ministers had the support of a British adviser. 100 British workers in 1885 ---> 1000 in 1905 in government.
- Britain declared a protectorate over Egypt in November 1914. Control of the Suez canal was crucial for the british - the Khedive (an ally of the ottoman empire) was deposed and his successor, Hussain kamel, had to declare himself as an independent Sultan of Egypt, under British protection.
46
What were successes to control of Egypt in 1890-1914?
- Caisse de la Dette improved Egyptian finances, as British could control their debt being payed off to other countries.
- Baring had to regulate Egyptian financial affiars. Khedive Ismail had £70 million debt. Baring made cutbacks to Egypt's military and bureaucracy.
- Baring helped the economy by improving communications and investing in irrigation schemes. He also improved labourers conditions and introduced better sanitation and health services in towns.
- In 10 years, cotton and sugar exports tripled and the population rose from 7m-10m.
- Baring reformed Egypt's army, he placed 6000 troops in it to ensure British interests were safe. The army was placed under the command of Kitchener
- 1909 - new uni - taught modern subjects and trained men for work.
- Rapid expansion in Egyptian tourism
- egyptian upper classes benefited from the occupation
47
What were challenges to control of Egypt 1890-1914?
- Late 1890s - growing middle class nationalist movement fuelled by newspapers which attacked the British for not dealing with the corrupted Khedive's government and not helping Egypt's poor.
- It was said the British didn't promote the cloth-making industry which would have provided many jobs. The British were only intrested in production of raw cotton to keep workers in Lancashire employed.
- Baring didn't want growth of nationalist protest so didn't improve education much.
- Nationalists complained at the lack of opportunities for educated egyptians. They thought they weren't able to run their own government.
- A national party (al-hizb al-wataní) attracted Egyptian lawyers and professionals . They sought the end of British occupation and their own representative government. When Baring was succeeded by Gorst, he introduced more Egyptians into government positions to try weaken the party. He also tried to impose tighter censorship of press., yet these measures didn't help much. The German government provided funds to fuel anti-British government,
- Denshawai incident seen with horror in the press. The punishments were harsh and it provoked backlash to British rule in Egypt.
48
What was the Denshawai incident?
1906: Denshawai incident. British officers angered residents of Denshawai by shooting pidgeons as a sport, which they used as food. A scuffle broke out, officers gun went off and wounded muslim prayer leaders wife. Officer died in the heat, a villager was shot as he was blamed for his death. 52 other villagers were tried for their role in the officers death.
- 4 were convicted of murder and sentenced to death. Others were ordered to be flogged and given a life sentence of penal servitude
- An egyptian policeman who backed the villagers was given 2 years imprisonment and 50 lashes.
49
How did nationalism grow in India from 1890-1914?
- Political opposition to British rule grew amongst the educated indian professional classes
- Nationalist newspapers grew.
- Bal Talik (editor of Kesari) and Shivram Paranjape (editor of Kaal) were sentenced to imprisonment for stirring up hostility.
- The Young India organisation became home for revolutionaries and political activities. It carried out assassinations of British officials
- partition of Bengal prompted the most opposition to the Raj. Tilak was at the front of a swadeshi movement deisgned to undermine British rule. petitions and protests and a public boycott of goods all took place.
50
What were challenges to control of the Sudan?(rise of nationalism)
- Kitcheners conquest of the Sudan - ending in the Battle of Omdurman and the fall of Khartoum(the Mahdist regime) - was reported in the press.
- Many saw the British now taking control of the Sudan as exchanging one oppressor for another.
- british struggled to establish control over the south of sudan. Sudanese refused to renounce their customs and pay taxation to the British.
- british used death penalty and violence to stop uprisings, which led to more resistance
- uprisings in 1900,1902-3,1904,1908 all responded to by Britain which a wave of violence
- however the region had good economic development while under the british
51
How did nationalism increase in Africa from 1890-1914?
British Somaliland - 'Mad Mullah' built an army of 20000 and from 1900 his forces raided somaliland, antagonising local communities. British couldn't supress this until 1920.
Zanzibar - Khalid bin Barghash assumed power after suspicious death of pro-British Sultan Hamoud. Commanded 3000 men but fled soon after.
West Africa - Tax on dwellings were met with resistance. Scorched earth approach secured surrender from resistors.
52
What were the economic and trade benefits of expansion into the Empire?
- India took 20% of Britain's total exports and in return india exported huge quantities of goods to Britain.
- Other territories played their part as well like wool and sugar from South Africa.
53
What was the role and influence of Joseph Chamberlain in 1890-1914?
- Colonial secretary of the Victorian era
- Secretary of state for the colonies
- He believed effective use of the Empire could sustain British prosperity and prestige.
- He had powerful influence on attitudes to empire.
- Believed imperial bonds had to be reinforced if Britain wanted to maintain its status as a world power
- Chamberlain, a strong advocate for 'colonial development', promoted government investment in the less profitable areas of empire. He wanted to promote tropical trade.
- he believed in a sense of 'imperial duty' - believed British was the greatest of the governing races
- When second boer war broke out, he was popular because of his aggressive attitude towards South Africa. As the war dragged on, he lost some of his glory.
- Resigned as Colonial Secretary in 1903 and became prime minister.
- Conducted a campaign of tariff reform to try to convince the British of the needs for duties on all foreign goods to give colonies imperial preference. He distributed leaflets and sent recorded messages to public meetings. He failed to carry the conservatives with him and didn't convince the public in the 1906 election.
- The Liberals got their greatest majority since the 1830's.
54
What was colonial preference?
Colonial preference, simply put, is a trade policy where goods produced within a colonial empire receive preferential treatment, like lower tariffs or taxes, compared to goods from outside the empire. This means goods from the colonizing country and its colonies were favored in trade, giving them a competitive edge
55
What was splendid isolation and how did it change?
Splendid isolation was a British foreign policy during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterised by a refusal to form permanent alliances with other European powers. Instead, Britain focused on maintaining its global empire, commercial interests, and naval supremacy. This policy began to change due to rising tensions in Europe, particularly the growth of the German Empire and the Second Boer War.
Several factors led to the abandonment of this policy:
Germany's Rise: The growing military power of Germany, particularly its naval ambitions, threatened Britain's dominance at sea.
The Second Boer War: Britain's humiliating defeat in the Boer War, and the subsequent negative perception of British power abroad, led some to question the effectiveness of splendid isolation.
European Tensions: The increasing tensions and formation of alliances in Europe made it clear that Britain could no longer remain completely detached
As a result, Britain began to form alliances, starting with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902 and the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904. These alliances eventually led to the Triple Entente with Russia and France
56
What was the role and influence of Cecil Rhodes in 1890-1914?
- Cecil Rhodes , the prime mister of the Cape Colony, was driven by a strong conviction of the betterment of the world
- With his vast fortune, politics and control of Cape newspapers, Rhodes impressed on audiences at home and abroad that it was the right of anglo-saxons to dominate africa.
- Inspired by social darwinist veiws, wanted to establish british rule from north to south of africa, linking the cape to the Sudan and Egypt.
- Sent troops to establish Fort Salisbury in Ndebele in 1890, expanding into territories from 1899 known as the Rhodesia's.
- Tried to make a railway from the Cape through Bechuanaland, to try outdo the Boer Republic and Germans in the rush to central Africa, and hoping to eventually reach the nile(cape to cairo line). This was blocked by German occupation of East Africa.
- Resigned as prime minister of the cape in 1896 after the Jameson raid
- He made a good fortune of the empire, and his funds helped promote the british empire after his death like the publicity work of the round table (imperial pressure group)
57
What was the role and influence of Viceroy Curzon 1890-1914?
- Believed in a religious and moral duty - empire was a supreme force of good in the world
- Established legislations to improve India's administration and agriculture, but also reintroduced means tests for famine relief, preventing millions from claiming aid during the famine of 1899-1902.
- Saw the re-arming on Indian regiments, the expansion of provincial police , promotion of education and construction of 6000 miles of railway - all consolidated British control of India.
- Founded Imperial Cadet Corps to give Indian nobles a military role, as Indian elites loyalty was crucial to consolidate control.
- He had feasts and enjoyed the pageantry while most of the country remained in poverty.
- Reluctant to give Indians any responsibility. Had a low opinion of Indians abilities. 'you cannot do without us'
- Believed dividing Bengal in 1905 would weaken the Raj's internal enemies but it backfired and led to widespread Indian resistance - he resigned the same year.
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What was the role and influence of Evelyn Baring 1890-1914?
-Consul general in Egypt between 1883 and 1907.
- Same Christian moral views
- Believed a long occupation of Egypt was essential
- Established the Granville Doctrine which allowed him to dismiss Egyptian ministers who refused to accept British directives
- created the veiled protectorate where British officials had power over egyptian affairs.
- arrangement worked well for first 10 years as tewfiq, the Kaiser, saw advantages of British military strength.
- Baring considered Egyptian army untrustworthy , due to previous uprisings, he disbanded it and a new army was created similar to Indias.
- Refused egyptian requests for more say in how their country was governed.
- Tewfiq died and was succeeded by Abbas Hilmi II, who didn't want British rule. Baring bullied his nationalist veiws into submission.
- Baring held orientalist views as he thought Egypt was under the grip of Islam, which he though was inferior to Christianity and bad for modern Egypt. He opposed their acceptance of slavery and subjugation of women.
- He tried to stop this but had to resign after the denshawai incident in 1906, which revealed the inequality of the British colonial justice system.
- Published books on Egypt, painting an orientalist picture and it as having barbarous customs.
59
What was the role and influence of Alfred Milner?
- An administrator who served in Egypt.
- Hand picked by Chamberlain to become Britain's high commissioner for Southern Africa from 1897. This was crucial as Britain and the Transvaal were close to conflict.
- Milner was convinced of British superiority over Africans and Boers and the need for British regional supremacy.
- Milner took Britain into the Second anglo-boer war.
- Milner demanded full citizenship rights for the Uitlanders after 5 years residence, and he used force to get his way, though it was Kruger who declared war.
- He took over administration of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal in 1901 after Britain annexed them.
- He negotiated the Peace of Vereeniging(1902)
- After the war, he and a group known as Milner's Kindergarten' worked to resettle the Boers and promote economic growth, particularly in the gold mining industry. He wanted to attract British settlers and so introduced an English language education programme.
- However, more british residents left than arrived during the depression after the Boer war. He used Chinese labourers to make up for the lack of workers in the gold mining industry. They were often racially abused by white managers. Led to an investigation by British press on the poor conditions and Milner's knowledge of them
-1906: move to censure (express dissapointment) him, but there was a counter campaign expressing high appreciation of his services in Africa.
- Issue of Chinese workers contributed to the Conservative election defeat in 1906, and new Liberal government which rejected his plans for the Transvaal's future.
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How did the individuals from 1890-1914 mould attitudes to empire?
- Joseph Chamberlain and Cecil Rhodes had profound effect on British policy making. However they were loathed by many in Britain for their imperialist views.
- Many students protested Rhodes Oxford honorary degree.
- Other administrators conviction on British racial, cultural and military superiority was honed at public school and in the army. Their approaches sometimes yielded results, but it cast aside the feelings of their colonial subjects.
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What were the causes of the Second Anglo-Boer war?
- 1890: Cecil Rhodes becomes prime minister of the Cape. His aim was to bring the Boer republics into a South African federation. He partly wanted this because the damage that the high tariffs imposed by the Boers were causing to trade and also because of personal hostility to Paul Kruger.
- Transvaal's power grew with the discovery of gold and its control being extended over Swaziland .
- Rhodes and Chamberlain were worried British dominance was threatened in SA, and so they supported to the Jameson raid which attempted to overtake Kruger's government over clashes of voting rights of Uitlanders.
- Alfred Milner encouraged a vigorous policy and Kruger securing a fourth term as Transvaal president in 1898 reflected the Boers resentment of British interference.
- Uitlanders pressured British government for action, more so after an Englishman was shot by a Transvaal policeman.
- Bloemfontein conference on may-june 1899, Milner demanded Uitlander voting rights but Kruger refused. Both sides began to mobilise their troops.
- October 1899: Ultimatum from Kruger demanding a British withdrawal from Boer republic borders, war broke out when they didn't withdraw.
62
What were the consequences of the Second Anglo-Boer war?
- Britain had an eventual military victory in 1902
- General Kitchener deployed a scorched earth policy which incinerated Boer farms and livestock
- Boer families and black Africans were interned in concentration camps with horrendous conditions. 115000 people in them by end of war, many women and children died from malnutrition and disease. Epidemics spread easily in camps. 16000 British soldiers died from disease, 3x more than from enemies.
- Boers surrender in May 1902, and had to accept British rule (with a promise of future self rule) over the Transvaal and orange Free state.
- War knocked British confidence as an imperial power, conflict lasted 3-4 years, involved 400000 troops and cost £230 million, far more than the british expected for any of these factors.
- 22000 British military killed , to 6000 Boer troops.
- Fighting a white enemy destablilised notions of British moral superiority. Fighting against a white civilisation was hard to defend.
- War showed vulnerability of imperial control. Britain had to call on troops from other parts of Empire to maintain the fight.
- Dictated the drive for national efficiency. Only the conservatives spoke out politically for imperialism.
- Treaty of Vereeniging of May 1902 granted £3 million in compensation to restore farms.
- Milner integrated the economies of British and Boer colonies
- Transvaal granted self governing in 1906, and Orange River colony in 1907.
- 1910 - Cape colony, Transvaal, Orange river colony, people of natal, agreed to establishment of the Union of South Africa, a dominion. Allowed states to retain their own voting policies.
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Whats national efficiency?
National efficiency" within the context of the British Empire referred to the idea that Britain needed to improve its efficiency in various areas, especially its workforce and economy, to maintain its position as a global power. This movement gained momentum after the Second Boer War (1899-1902), where Britain's military performance and the condition of its soldiers revealed weaknesses.
Measures taken to improve national efficiency:
- 1902 education act, sought to raise school standards and open new schools
- the modernisation of the royal navy, new battleship, the dreadnought launched in the wake of the expansion of the german navy
- centre of technological, medical and scientific excellence established 1907 - 'imperial collage'
- Liberal social reforms - free school meals, school medical inspections, childrens welfare charter, old age pensions, unemployment and health insurance giving free medical treatment.
-David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill worked with the prime minister Herbert Asquif, to bring about the new liberal philosophy.
- The campaign and reforms addressed internal shortcomings and showed the ideas of high imperialists were unnecessary to the continuation of empire and its capability to run and defend the empire.
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Who were the supporters of imperialism?
- Empire widely supported at all levels of society
- Public displays of support for empire at the start of the boer War.
- Support for 2nd boer war and empire helped conservatives win a victory in 1900 - 'khaki election' - British forces wore khaki uniform.
- Empire justified on moral grounds as a duty from God to bring order to the world. Liberal grounds as civilising colonial people and freeing them from local oppression.
- Liberals aimed at the education of colonies and their people with the ultimate objective of self rule. They were still reluctant to end empire.
- There were imperialists who were enthusiastic for empire, who were almost all conservatives. They aimed for a stronger and closely united empire, which meant expansion but support for schemes to bind the empire in trade and government.
- Some viewed empire as a racial duty, e.g alfred milner and lord curzon. These high imperialists wanted a stronger empire but ruled by white people.
- Joseph chamberlain was a high imperialist who believed there was a national crisis(imperial development of other powers) which only the Empire could solve. He wanted to reorganise it to generate wealth,for industrial recovery for employment, and for moral fibre of British people. He told public about this to win working class.
- Imperialists argued for economic benefits, like imperial prefence
- Imperial activists were part of societies like the Royal Colonial Institute - a meeting place for people interested in colonial affairs.
- The Victoria League, founded 1901 by women to promote a closer union between parts of the Empire through education, hospitality, etc.
- The Round Table Movement, founded in 1909, promoted a closer union between Britain and its self governing colonies. Groups formed in colonies.
- Empire Day movement, intended to reinforce imperial identity and celebrate Queen Victoria's motherly image. Tried to educate public about empire.
- Journalists, e/g. Leopold Amery, represented ideals of the Empire to the british people without reference to the realities of colonial rule.
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Who were the critics of imperialism?
- John A Hobson. His view was that imperial expansion had been driven by a search for new markets and new opportunities for the rich capitalists to make profits through investment. He also thought the 2nd Boer war was fought to secure gold resources of SA for Jew-imperialist entrepreneurs. Thought empire was a capitalist plot. His views provoked debate and fed into anti imperialism but had no immediate impact on policies.
- Second Boer War caused lots of critics to emerge
- Emily Hobhouse reported the conditions of the concentration camps in the boer war after farms were incinerated. This tarnished the imperialist supposed civilising mission.
- Walter Crane - used his design skills to produce anti war illustrations to encourage those on the left to embrace anti-imperialism
- However, for the most part anti imperialism was hidden under broad imperial support. While the liberals were in support from 1906-1914, imperialism declined as a political topic as they preferred to disassociate themselves from colonial conflict.
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How did the popular press develop from 1890-1914?
- Somewhat of a golden age of newspaper publication as technical advantages in printing and the emergence of professional journalists with a political agenda enabled print to respond to demand and establish a new audience.
- Alfred Hamsworth produced a new cheap newspaper in 1896 with the Daily Mail. It was aimed at the lower middle class. During the 2nd Boer war, it sold 1 million+ copies a day, with stories of war and praising the heroism of British troops and damning Kruger and the Boers.
- Early 20th century, mail went against the Germans who had a military threat to empire. The Mail also made some patriotic books.
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How did literature and music develop 1890-1914?
- popular writer Rudyard Kipling, who was a great believer in empire, Britain's greatness, and social Darwinism shaped attitudes of British people. He was often critical of imperial administrators but had an almost religious belief in empire and superiority of the british race. His poem 'the white man's burden' is a call for responsibility of white people to 'civilise'.
- Also, the books of Samuel Baker and G.A Henty's military campaign tales were Victorian bestsellers.
- Some romance featured in imperialist books aimed at women, eg. gertrude page who lived in Rhodesia and Mary Gaunt. Anglo-Indian love stories came from the 1890s, many from Maud Diver.
- Nationalist and imperialist themes found in music
