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Mod 6 - IQ3 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are some genetic technologies which induce genetic change?

A
  • Hybridisation (The process of combining different varieties of organisms to create a hybrid e.g. Tiger + Lion = Liger)
  • Selective Breeding - Artificial Pollination - Artificial Insemination
  • IVF (In Vitro Fertilisation)
  • Transgenic Organisms
  • Gene Cloning
  • Whole organism cloning
  • Gene Therapy (Inserting a particular DNA code into the patient’s own cells to correct genes and stop symptoms of that particular disease)
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2
Q

What are the benefits of using Genetic Technologies in agriculture?

A

The potential benefits of using genetic technologies in agriculture include:
- Producing Crops that are drought resistent
- Producing crops which are pest resistant
- Producing crops which have a higher yield

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3
Q

What are the potential medical benefits of using genetic technologies?

A
  • Production of food with better nutritional value to prevent nutritional diseases
  • Production of pharmaceuticals e.g. Antibiotics and vaccines
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4
Q

What are the industrial benefits of using genetic technologies?

A
  • A potential for new polymers
  • A potential for new energy sources and products which are extremely environmentally friendly e.g. Using genetically engineered plants to absorb heavy metals from contaminated sites
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5
Q

What are the social benefits, but ethical implications of using GloFish such as the zebrafish in medical research?

A

Social Benfits - Because zebrafish DNA is 90% similar to Human and are transluscent, we can observe the changes they undergo upon exposure to different diseases to see how they spread
- This can help us identify how to counteract cancers, by inducing cancer into a zebrafish
Ethical Issue - It isn’t ethical to induce cancer into a fish for fun.

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6
Q

What is artificial insemination?

A

Artificial insemination is a process used in animals where male gametes are collected and introduced artificially into the female genital tract for the purpose of fertilisation.

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7
Q

What are the benefits of artificial insemination?

A
  • This technique enables males with desirable characteristics to inseminate more females then possible by female mating (2000 cows each year instead of 100)
  • Semen can also be frozon and transported cheaply over distances - Populations gene pool will flow towards desirable characteristics
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8
Q

What are the social benefits of artificial insemination?

A

With more desirable characteristics present within an agricultural population:
1. More resources will be produced per animal, translating to less strain on the environment
2. Higher profits will be made as there is less need for maintenance of several males.

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9
Q

What are some disadvantages of using Artificial Insemination?

A
  1. Decreases genetic variation as typically certain traits are continuously selected. artificially increasing the allele frequency of those traits.
  2. Susceptibility to extinction due to decreased total gene pool and allele frequency in the population as the same traits are reproduced
  3. Inbreeding will occur which will lead to diseases (#Tasmania)
  4. Ethically it could be stated as an unnatural process
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10
Q

What is In Vitro Fertilisation?

A

In Vitro Fertilisation is a different method of artificial insemination where the sperm and ovum are mixed in a nutrient medium outside a women’s body. (Test Tude Baby)

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11
Q

When is the process of IVF?

A
  1. Basic screening tests are performed to check the health of sperm and if the female can make sufficient follicles
  2. The women in stimulated with injected medications to produce multiple eggs, these injections continue for about 8-10 days
  3. Blood and ultrasound testing is done every 1 to 3 days to monitor the development of follicles in ovaries 4. Mature eggs are removed from the follicles.
  4. The eggs are then fertilised in the laboratory with sperm
  5. The embryos culture in a lab for up to 6 days.
  6. The embryos are transferred into the womens uterus where they will implant and develop to create birth.
  7. Unused embryos can be frozen for future use.
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12
Q

When is IVF a useful procedure?

A

IVF is a useful procedure when a womans fallopian tubes are blocked

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13
Q

What is pollination? What are the two types of pollination?

A

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a plant. This occurs in two types:
Self Pollination - Occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther to the stigma on the same flower, or from another flower on the same plant

Cross Pollination - Transfer of pollen from one plant to the flower of a genetically different plant or variety.

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14
Q

What is artificial pollination?

A

Artificial Pollination is the deliberate selection of useful plant varities by breeders.
- This involves the selection and cross pollination of plants to produce varieties and hybrids with desirable traits.

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15
Q

What is the advantages of artificial pollination?

A
  1. Produce crops with favourable characteristics (e.g. Larger fruit, increased yield)
  2. Can change the genetic composition of a population quickly to suit breeder needs.
  3. Ensures the pollination of plants in cases where there may not be enough bees.
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16
Q

What are the disadvantages of artificial pollination?

A
  • Overuse leads to a decrease in genetic diversity, these varities with less favourable characteristics may contain useful genes for other purposes. (Monoculture)
  • When less favourable traits are inheritaed along with favourable ones, a plant becomes vulnerable
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17
Q

What is whole organism cloning?

A

Whole organism cloning is the production of a genetically identical organism by using a somatic cell from another mature organism.
- This is also known as Somatic Cell Nucleur Transfer

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18
Q

What is cloning?

A

Cloning is the production of the exact copy of an organism. Two scenarios
1. Gene Cloning - Production of an identical gene
2. Whole Organism Cloning - Production of a genetically identical organism using the somatic cell from another mature organism

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19
Q

What is the role of Bacterial Plasmids and Viruses in DNA Gene Cloning

A
  1. The gene or DNA fragment of interest is inserted into a piece of DNA. This piece of DNA can be inserted into Bacterial Plasmids and Viruses which act as DNA Vectors for the cloning
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20
Q

What is the process of DNA cloning when using bacteria?

A
  1. Isolation of Genetic Material - The desired DNA is isolated from other molecules in a cell, this is achieved via the addition of ethanol causing DNA to precipitate
  2. Selection of Vector - A vector such as bacterial plasmids or viruses is selected which will allow for DNA to multiply inside.
  3. Restriction Enzyme Digestion - Restriction enzymes act as molecular scissors that cut DNA at specific locations to create “Sticky Ends” on the desired DNA and Vector DNA. by cutting certain sequences of bases
  4. Amplification via PCR - Polymerase Chain Reactions (PCR) are performed on these cut genes to produce millions of copies
  5. Ligation of DNA Molecules - The Vector DNA and Purified DNA are joined together via the DNA Ligase, which combines them at their “Sticky Ends” - THis intermixing of DNA strands is known as recombination and produced Recombinant DNA
  6. Insertion of Recombinant DNA - The recombinant DNA is introduced into the recipient host cell (usually a bacteria) in a process known as transformation
    - Bacteria may undergo thermal shock or Ca++ ion treatment to allow them to accept the DNA
  7. Isolation of Recombinant Cells - The host cell undergoes normal cell Replication which produces cells expressing the desired DNA gene
    - Isolation occurs via looking for proteins containing labelled antibodies or using short lengths of DNA sequences to mark transformed DNA
  8. Amplification of Desired Gene - The numerous copies of the desired gene or the protein coded by the desired gene have been isolated.
    - These can be amplified using PCR, or the product can be synthesised into larger quantities
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21
Q

What is the purpose of DNA Cloning within plasmids?

A

DNA cloning within plasmids allow the useful expressions of genes to be produced on a mass scale. With bacteria acting like “factories” to produce proteins.
- For example the human insulin gene is expressed in E.Coli Bacteria to make insulin used by diabetics

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22
Q

How is whole organism cloning conducted in plants? (Cuttings, Grafting, Tissue Culture)

A

Many plants undergo asexual reproduction naturally. This Vegetative Propagation can be manipulated to conduct whole organism cloning

Cutting - A section is removed from a parent plant and placed in soil/water. - This develops roots, stems and leaves to eventually grow into a full size plant

Grafting - A cutting stem of a plant is bound to the cut stem of another which already has developed roots. - The two stems fuse together and the grafting grows utilising the root stock.

Tissue Cultures - A section of a parent plant is pulverised to release individual plant cells
- These cells are grown on a nutrient and hormone containing medium so they grow to form small sprouts
- These sprouts grow to be big plants

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23
Q

What is the name of the process which is used to clone whole organisms? When was this first applied?

A

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer is a process used to clone whole organisms.
- The first organism cloned was Dolly the Sheep in 1997

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24
Q

What is somatic cell nuclear transfer?

A

Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer is a method of cloning that results in the artificial production of an offspring that is genetically identical to another organism.

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25
What is the process for somatic cell nuclear transfer?
1. Egg is removed from an adult, the nucleus of the cell is removed 2. A somatic cell is taken from the organism wanting to be cloned 3. The somatic cell and empty donor egg are fused together using electricity. 4. The embryo begins to divide, it will be inserted into the adult where the egg was taken from. 5. When birth takes place, the organism will be genetically identical to the animal where the somatic cell was sourced from.
26
What is embryo splitting?
Embryo splitting is a method of cloning animals to produce a group of genetically identical animals. - A sperm and egg are artificially combined, and the resulting embryo if cultured in a laboratory to split into eight cells suitable for four organisms. - These embryos are transferred to the uterus of the surrogate mother, where they will be born as genetically identical offspring
27
What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Whole Organism Cloning?
Advantages - We can clone species such as mice for disease models so that results can be more valid as there is less variation genetically - Cloning endangered spacies can help increase population size. - Livestock can be cloned so that desirable characteristics can be maintained within a population. Disadvantages - Cloning isn't perfect, and may take multiple attemps to produce a successful clone. There is a high chance of miscarriages - Cloned animals often have defects in vital organs such as the liver, brain and heart, they also face premature aging and problems with their immune system - The diversity of organisms is being reduced by whole organism cloning, making a species more susceptible to disease
28
How is Recombinant DNA produced?
1. DNA fragments are extracted from their natural source. Both the target gene and scaffold DNA 2. A restriction enzyme cuts off DNA fragments on both the target gene and scaffold DNA at specific base sequences, so that the target gene and scaffold DNA have complementary cut sections known as "sticky ends" 3. The "sticky ends" combine so that the target gene is inserted into the scaffold DNA 4. DNA Ligase makes sure that the DNA bases have bonded together properly with the DNA backbone.
29
What is a common scaffold DNA used for recombinant DNA?
Plasmids from bacteria
30
How has agrobacterium tumefaciens been used as a Bacterial Vector to create genetically modified plants?
Agrobacterium Tumefacians has been vital to the production of herbicide resistant crops. - Crops with a natural resistance to a herbicide is identified, and the specific gene responsible for this is cut and inserted into plasmids which are placed inside the agrobacterium tumefacians - The bacteria is then inserted into cells of a crop plant to divide and cause the plant to have a resistance to herbicide.
31
What is transgenesis?
Transgenesis is the introduction of genetic material from an external source into a living organism so that the organism will exhibit a new desirable trait and transfer it onto offspring.
32
What are two recombinant DNA technologies used in plants?
1. Agrobacterium Insertion 2. Gene Guns
33
How do Gene guns work?
Gene guns shoot small gold or tungsten particles coated with DNA into a plant cell. - This introduces new DNA into a cell to cause plants to grow into transgenic plants
34
What is the recombinant DNA technology of microinjection?
Microinjection is a process whereby new DNA is injected directly into a fertilised egg cell before it begins to divide. - This is a random process, where certain DNA may not be expressed and a transgenic animal will not be produced - The inserted DNA combines with that inside a cell to produce recombinant DNA
35
What is CRISPR-Cas9?
CRISPR-Cas9 is a recombinant DNA technology that enables us to edit parts of genome by removing, adding or altering sections of a DNA sequence.
36
What are the potential applications of CRISPR-Cas9
CRISPR has potential to: - Correct genetic defects - Treat and prevent the spread of diseases - Improve crops
37
What are the steps required for CRISPR-Cas9
1. Identify the section of genome wanting to be altered. 2. Create a specific strand of guide RNA to recognise the specific sequence 3. Attach the guide RNA to the Cas-9 enzyme 4. Insert the complex between RNA and enzyme into target cells 5. The complex will locate and cuts the specific sequences of DNA 6. Sequences can now be added to edit the overall DNA structure
38
What are the benefits of CRISPR-Cas9
1. Has potential to correct genetic errors which cause disease 2. It could eliminate microbes which cause disease 3. May resurrect extinct species 4. Could help create healthier foods and bigger crop yields by manipulating genes that determine size, architecture and shape of a plant 5. Could eradicate dangerous pests
39
What are the limitations of the CRISPR-Cas9 Technology?
1. There is a potential for it to trigger an immune response, resulting in toxicity 2. There is an ethical consideration as to whether we should be changing genomes without consenet. In particular for unborn babies with genetic defects. Or in the case of choosing boy/girl 3. May alter the function and stability of a gene 4. May not be able to recognise plasmid DNA in cells
40
What health issues can be removed via CRISPR Cas9 Technology
Potential to remove: - Allergies - Diseases like HIV, Cystic Fibrosis - Eliminate Cancers
41
What are transgenic species?
Transgenic species are organisms that have had their DNA altered by the transfer of DNA from another species.
42
How is recombinant DNA used in the medical field to produce insulin?
The human insulin gene is isolated from cells and inserted into a plasmid of E.Coli Bacteria via Recombinant DNA technology. - This transgenic E.Coli Bacteria can then replicate, producing clones capable of producing human insulin. - This insulin can be produced quickly at a cheap cost.
43
What is the advantage of using Recombinant DNA technology to produce insulin rather then extracting it from pigs/cows.
- It is far cheaper to produce insulin from E.Coli Bacteria - It is faster for the E.Coli Bacteria to reproduce then to extract insulin from pigs/cows - By producing insulin which is completely genetically compatible to human DNA there is a removed risk of potential allergic reactions - Removes the risk of disease contamination across species
44
What is a perceived disadvantage of using recombinant DNA technology to produce insulin for the medical field?
A small group of insulin users claim that they lose hypoglycaemia (low sugar) warning signs when they swap from animal derived insulin to genetically engineered recombinant human insulin. - However a British Study found no significant difference in the frequency of signs.
45
What is Bt Cotton?
Bt Cotton is a transgenic species that has been developed via recombinant DNA technology combining cotton and common soil bacterium Baccilus Thuringiensis - By combining these DNA's, the product of Bt Cotton produces its own insecticide to kill insect pests, allowing farmers to spend less on pesticides and thus protect the environment better as the toxin produced only kills Heliothis (a caterpillar species) which would usually terrorise cotton fields
46
How is Bt Cotton Produced?
Produced using either: - Agrobacterium Tumefacians technology (bacteria inserted into plant) - Gene Guns
47
What are the advantages and disadvantages of bT cotton?
Advantages - Increases yield of cotton due to effective control of worms/caterpillars - Reduces insecticide use - Reduction in health hazards due to rare use of insecticides - More environmentally friendly due to less pesticide usage Disadvantages - High Cost of seeds - Potential long term vulnerability of cotton due to a loss in genetic diversity
48
What is the benefit of using genetic technologies in agriculture?
- Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses such as salinity or drough resistance - Increased nutritional qualities of food crops - Improved taste, texture and appearance of food - Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals - Improved yield from crops
49
What are three applications of genetic technologies in agriculture?
1. Genetically Modified Foods to improve nutritional value 2. Pest resistance via Bt Cotton 3. Herbicide Resistance
50
How are genetically modified foods being applied to fight diseases?
Genetically modified foods can have improved nutritional value to fight nutrition related diseases. - For example Golden Rice contains beta-carotene needed for Vitamin A production in our body. This is a vital nutrient that is often lacking in developing countries. - Genes from daffodils and bacterium were cloned into rice to make it golden.
51
How are genetically modified technologies being applied in agriculture to produce Herbicide Resistance?
- Plants such as the Roundup-Ready Soybean plants have been genetically modified to be tolerant to herbicides. - This allows farmers to kill surrounding weeds and plants with herbicides, without damaging their crop.
52
What are concerns about Genetically Modified Foods?
1. Triggering of allergic reactions 2. Outcrossing of genes, where gene pools may become entangles unintentionally 3. New diseases could emerge due to mass replication of bacteria and viruses. 4. Gene transfer of antibiotic resistance is a potential threat 5. Ethical issues regarding what genes are transferred. e.g. Salmon DNA infused into Strawberries to become frost resistant, is it still vegetarian?
53
How are genetic technologies utilised in medicine and pharmaceuticals? (Vaccines, Antibiotics, Recombinant Insulin)
Vaccines - Modern techniques use specific genes of micro-organisms cloned into vectors and mass produced in bacteria to produce large quantities of specific substances to stimulate the immune system. Antibiotics - Antibiotics kill bacteria and a produced by micro-organisms scuh as fungi. These can be produced on a large scale by genetically modifying funal cells to improve yields of antibiotic compounds. Recombinant Insulin - The human gene code to produce insulin has been inserted into e.coli bacteria which will then produce insulin at a large scale for diabetic application
54
Identify two uses of genetic technology in medicine?
1. Pharmaceutical production 2. Organ Transplants
55
How are genetic technologies used in medicine for Organ Transplants?
Xenotransplantations refers to the use of other species for organ transplants. - This has occured via the development of transgenic pigs which possess genes which codes for human cell-surface proteins (antigen) - This allows a steady access to organs for transplants, containing antigens to allow successfull transplants.
56
What are the ethical issues with Xenotransplantations utilising pigs?
The ethical issue is where we should be raising pigs purely for organ harvesting.
57
Identify 3 ways genetic technologies which have been applied to industry?
A. Remediation in Environment via GM Microbes B. Manufacturing of Biofuels C. Industrial Products as a result of transgenic animals
58
How have genetic technologies in industry allowed the remediation of environments?
Genetic technologies have led to the development of genetically modified microbes that will absorb and destroy hazardous waste and material from environments. - The fast growth rate of these microbes allow a rapid cleanup of oil, toxic wastes and pollution.
59
How have genetic technlogologies in industry changed manufacturing of biofuels?
Genetic Technology has allowed us to genetically engineer bacteria and algae to feed on sugars to produce biofuels. e.g. Strain of E.Coli have been produced to make diesel fuel from biomass
60
How have genetic technologies been used in industry to produce more industrial products via transgenic animals?
Transgenic species can have their genetics engineered to produce new products. - Spider genes have been inserted into goats so that their milk contains spider silk proteins. - This allows mass scale of spider silk, the strongest fibre we have currently which can be used for bulletproof vests and improved car airbags.
61
What impact does biotechnology have on the biodiversity in agriculture?
It has potential to increase and decrease genetic diversity. - In the short term, introduced genes will broaden the gene pool as desirable traits are genetically engineered into a population - In the long term selected desirable traits will go through selective breeding to decrease the genetic variation, making a species more vulnerable. - Herbicide reistant crops promote the use of herbicides in agriculture, which will kill many species within ecosystems.
62
What are the benefits of biotechnologies?
Pharmaceutical Creation e.g. Insulin Bioremediation Greater Yields in Agricultural Fields Detection of Genetic Disorders Transformation of waste into Ethanol Specific Traits can be developed
63
What are the potential disadvantages of genetic engineering?
Nutritional value of foods can be less due to faster growth rate Pathogens adapt to new genetic profiles Genetic Diversity may decrease

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