Modern Iran

Question 1

Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BC)

Answer 1

This was the Persian Empire founded by Cyrus the Great united under the monotheist Zoroastrian religion. This empire ended when Alexander the Great invaded Persia in 334 BC and burned down Persepolis.

Question 2

Sassanid Empire (AD 224 – 651)

Answer 2

The Sassanid Empire followed the Persian Empire, and after the invasion of the Muslim armies, the empire fell, which took many centuries to build a unified political entity created under the Mongols and Safavids. The Mongol invasion significantly predates the Safavid rise in the mid 13th century, which established the Ilkhanate. In this period of invasion, the Mongols ushered in economic trade routes and cultural prosperity leading to Persian being the court language. At this time a lot of poetry and art is created, which reflects what many Western powers would call “Renaissance/humanist” thought

Question 3

Safavid Empire (1501 – 1722)

Answer 3

Main leader was Shah Ismail, who founded the Safavid Empire, then Shah Abbas the Great as the 5th leader, the empire was strongest/most stable in the 1600s. Founded the greatest on the influence of the Shia religion and rise of clerical power

Question 4

Qajar Iran (1796-1925)

Answer 4

The long 19th century, which ushered in contemporary Iran. The rise of the modern state created social attention both politically and religiously, as Islamic leaders in Iran disagreed on how to live and conduct life until the return of the Mahdi/Messiah prophet.

Question 5

What are the main traits of the natural and human geography of Iran?

Answer 5

The natural geography of Iran created an organization of human activity around water sources, but also because the terrain of Iran is a mixture of dry arid regions, and lower altitude arable land, there are a few large cities in Iran, but earlier in history, especially during the 17th-19th century, native tribes in Iran exacted autonomous power separate from the central state.
- Environment is diverse, consolidating the population, meaning few people live in rural regions. Historically the pastoral, nomadic populations were encouraged to adapt to the different terrains in Iran.
- The location of the country places them in an interesting position with positive and negative attributes, as the secluded, more mountainous regions provide military protection, but they are also in between many world powers

Question 6

When and how did Shia Islam emerge? What sets it apart from Sunni Islam? What is the
Imamate? What are the names of three important imams and what is their importance?

Answer 6

The Shia and Sunni Islamic denominations disagree on whether imams or leaders should be direct descendants of Muhammed, as the Shia believe they should, while the Sunni believe that elders/wise individuals from the community are appropriate to lead. After Imam Ali, the 1st successor of Muhammad, Shias believed that the Imam role should go from father to son, and Shia Muslims believe and practice ijtihad, or the idea that the gate of interpreting these aspects of the faith are open, which is why the Iranian state/religious community created the role of Mujtahids, or theological and legal scholars to interpret the Word.

Question 7

(Ali (first imam), Hussain (grandson of Muhammed and son of Ali), Mahdi (messiah figure to arrive at the end of days to rid the world of evil and injustice)). What is the story of Karbala and Ashura?

Answer 7

The Battle of Karbala was fought during King Imam Hussain’s rule, in which he died in battle along with his entire family, virtually ridding the Iranian people of a proper descendant of Muhammed. The violence took place between the Umayyad caliphate, who were Sunni, and the Imam King Hussain, as a precursor to the Safavid empire.

Question 8

How did the role of Islam change under the Safavids? When (not the exact date) and how did Shia Islam become the religion of most Iranians?

Answer 8

Under the Safavids, established by Shah Ismail, the Shia religion became the official religion if Iran, converting many Iranians to Shia Islam, establishing Shi’ism as a mark of identity and creating anti-Sunni sentiments throughout Iran. Shah Ismail supposedly was a descendant of Imam Ali, and thus was fit to rule over the Iranian Shias, bringing theologians from Iraq and Lebanon to establish a separate key of powers allocated to the ulama/clergy, which grew not only to include religious authority in their communities, but also political/economic power. Independent of the shah and court officials, the ulama would grow to exercise their own autonomy and separate themselves from the Iranian elite. The ulama not only became the source for religious authority, but also made up the most intellectual, scholarly individuals in the Iranian population. At this time, the economy was dictated greatly by tribal pastoralism, or smaller nomadic merchant groups organizing and operating on trade routes between countries via the silk trade. Silk became the major export of Iran on these trade routes, causing the relationships with European powers to remain relatively equal due to mutual economic gain/dependence.

Question 9

How and why did the power/independence of the clergy grow from the Safavids to the
Qajars?

Answer 9

The decline of the Safavids took place via challenges between exacting power/organization between the Shah and the tribal leaders who embraced economic independence. Along with lower agricultural productivity and changing trade routes, the empire suffered economic struggle. As the Safavid empire declined, the power of the ulama/clergy grew because of its economic support base of waqf or endowments and religious taxes levied within communities. The clerical hierarchy is further established into the shift to the Qajar empire, as the mujtahid’s were considered the highest position of authority.

Question 10

What is the role of a mujtahed?

Answer 10

The mujtahed was an extension of the hierarchical leadership of the ulama/clergy

Question 11

What was the relationship between religion and politics under the Safavids and Qajars?

Answer 11

Both regimes were Shia, but the Safavids embraced Shia to strengthen the people. The Qajar government cares less or is less involved with religious dogma/theology than the Safavids because of the delegation of religious leadership to the clergy. The ulama levies taxes and establishes their own hierarchy via the mujtahids, these included the tuyul or land grants exacted as a form of income to the military, as well as the qanat or irrigation water system used to transport water from mountains to cities.

Question 12

What is Quietism?

Answer 12

Quietism is a religious and political practice tied to the concept of neutrality or apathetic support for the world’s rulers in response to the absence of the Mahdi, or Messiah figure in Islam. This is a passive approach to politics rooted in the adoption of adherence to faith rather than worldly governance.

Question 13

What is Sufism?

Answer 13

Religious movement regarding the mystical interpretation/application of Islam, surrounding ritual practices rather than strict Islamic doctrines, like how many times one prays a day. There’s mention of wine prayer rituals with dances that then causes one to become transcendental and be able to be closer to God. Many of the Iranian poets and scholars like Rumi embraced the peaceful, revelation-based religion rather than strict scholarship regarding Islam.

Question 14

Name at least two Qajar Shahs and their importance/role in the political transformations
of the 19th and early 20th century

Answer 14

Agha Mohammad Khan was the founding leader of the Qajars, and Fath Ali Shah led the empire during the Russo-Persian Wars in the early 19th century.

Nasser al’Din Shah’s reign was a keystone of attempts at elite reform. His reign also deeply involved economic interactions/conflicts between the Iranian government and the concession agreements granted to imperial powers via the Anglo-Russian and Russo-Persian wars.
Nasser al-Din Shah died via assassination by Mirza Reza Kermani, a follower of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani while he visited the shrine in 1896.

Question 15

What were the main societal (social groups), administrative, economic and religious
hallmarks of 19th century Qajar Iran?

Answer 15

The main societal markers included the role of tribal nomads which made up half the population in 1800, and declined by 1900. The largest tribal population conquered the land and established the Qajar empire, but the existence of other tribal groups made political/social centralization difficult to maintain/regulate. There was high taxation due to giving tuyuls to local leaders in return for military protection during conflict. The court administration operated via the Shah and relatives at court like the Queen mother and favorite wives, provincial governors and treasurers. The bureaucracy in the early Qajar empire was small and the army was weak. The economy was built on pastoral nomadism via agriculture with low productivity leading to scattered villages and peasant populations. The Qajars lacked the religious legitimacy of the Safavids partly due to its rise to power from a nomadic group rather than Shah Ismail’s relativity to Imam Ali. The Qajar’s did however see an increased presence of European powers via imperialism.

Question 16

What were some of the main domestic and international developments in Qajar Iran?

Answer 16

Anglo-Russian conflict and power dynamics, Westernization and the development of Defensive Modernization via Nasser al-Din Shah, introduction of capitalism and growth of moral economy via bread riots in 1891 and tobacco revolts, as well as growth of pan-Islamism via conflict with Muslim neighbors, the Ottomans in late 18th century

Question 17

What where some of the important forces that caused the (the lack of) developments
under the Qajars.

Answer 17

Geographical arid regions, weak central government via disagreement between tribal nomads, ulama, but some bureaucratic positions strengthened in the latter half of the 19th century. Imperialism via the Anglo-Russian rivalry prevented significant economic development like railways as imports undermines domestic manufacturing and trade. Land taxes increased which slowed down agricultural production, nad lower classes suffered from paying taxes, while more urban merchants paid less. Where the shah and court are investing their finances is not in infrastructure.

Question 18

How did the influence of Russia and Britain grow in Iran?

Answer 18

The influence of these two Western powers created lasting conflict/struggle in Iran on all three spectrums including political, economic, and social. Politically, the conflict between the three countries destabilized the Iranian state, economically as well through tariffs and concessions on imported goods. Socially, the impacts of westernization and defensive modernization reared its ugly head towards Iran, as there were pressures from the west to build up military and develop the social sphere of Iran to compete with its western counterparts. Due to Iran’s location in-between many world powers, Russia and Britain established an invasion and extract/exploit relationship with the Iranian state/economy, creating ally ties under the façade of mutual support, when in fact the impacts of western imperialism made Iran a target for orientalism.

Question 19

How did the power of Russia grow in Iran through wars? Which main wars? What
were the Treaty of Golestan and Treaty of Turkmenchai?

Answer 19

The Russo-Persian wars took place first in 1804-13 and again from 1826-28. In 1804, there was a Treaty of Gulistan to end the wars, in which Iran lost territory to Russia and the country obtained a monopoly on warships in the Caspian Sea. When the conflict arose again in the 1820s, Persian wished to obtain its lost territory, leading the Treaty of Turkmenchai, when Russia got land and economic concessions (5% import tariff and legal immunity for Russians in Iran)

Question 20

What were economic concessions, name at least two.

Answer 20

Economic concessions were granted to Britain in 1841 via the Anglo-Persian Treaty of Commerce. Concessions included oil and tobacco to Britain, with an overall 5% tariff.

Question 21

What were the consequences of imperialism for the population and the economy?

Answer 21

Anti-foreign sentiments like the Griboyedov incident when a Russian mission was set forth by an author who was sent to Iran in 1829. Consequences also included a drain on financial resources, the increased influence of foreign capital in the Iranian economy, and reform attempts via the elite.

Question 22

What were the three reactions to the socio-economic dislocations and loss of sovereignty
caused by imperialism?

Answer 22

Elite reforms, popular revolts, and pan-Islamism.

Question 23

Defensive modernization

Answer 23

Defensive modernization is a strategy countries use to strengthen their military and economy to defend themselves against external threats

Question 24

Reforms under Abbas Mirza in the 1820s-1830s: give examples of his reforms
(army, court language simplification)

Answer 24

Abbas Mirza embraces military reforms that do not go very far, simplifies court language to increase communication and accessibility of subjects and the elite.

Question 25

Reforms of Amir Kabir, 1840s: give examples of his reforms (military reforms, Dar al-Fonun, financial reforms: restrictions on court expenses)

Answer 25

This leader begins the al-Fonun formal school to education individuals to hold bureaucratic offices. In the 1840s, the Dar al-Fonun was established which curtails elite finances and restricts the amount the Shah’s court can spend on travel to western places and frivolous trade like opium and clothing. The ulama dislike the secular school as until this point, scholarship and intellect were operated and funded by the clergy and religious community leaders. Amir Kabir, though he created the secular school, was a victim of elite violence when he was sacked by the court as part of a conspiracy and killed.

Question 26

Which reforms in the 1870s? (centralization of judiciary, introduction of a court system with nine ministers, modern postal system)

Answer 26

Bureaucracy reforms are enacted under Nasser al-Din Shal in the 1870s, after the foundation set by Amir Kabir in the 1840s. In 1873, Nasser al-Din Shah visited Europe and returned with the desire to modernize Iranian politics and society to both compete and compare to the western world. At this time, he introduces the nine minister system at court to establish a more stable central government and bureaucracy, including the railway and modern postal system. Mirza Malkum Khan in the late 19th century also instituted more intellectual change via the press and newspaper. He wrote the Qanun or law newspaper to establish discourse in the public sphere on events within the courts and government, creating a more reactive audience via subjects to the actions of the state.

Question 27

Babi revolt, 1848-53 What kind of movement was it?

Answer 27

Religiously important movement due to its root in Islam and the established clergy were against the supporters. The Babi means gate/port to God and the leader claimed he was the medium to God, then claimed he was the new prophet/messiah. It was important as well because it challenged the social inequality and destabilization of the Iranian economy compared to its eastern and western neighbors via concessions. A key figure of the Babi Revolt was Qurrat al-Ayn who was a female orator and scholar who rebelled and took off her hijab

Question 28

Tobacco Revolt, 1891 What was it about? What happened, i.e. which forms of protest? Who led it and participated in it? What was the outcome?

Answer 28

The tobacco revolt grew after the concessions provided to Britain in 1890, with protests starting in spring 1891 which culminate in a nationwide boycott in 1891, effectively foreshadowing the Constitutional Revolution as the first successful modern mass protest in Iran. Clergy played a large role in the tobacco revolt

Question 29

C) Pan-Islamism To what extent is it valid to speak about pan-Islamism in 1774, when after being defeated by the Russians in Crimea, the Ottoman Sultan claimed to be the caliph of all Muslims?

Answer 29

The Ottoman Sultan claimed to be the caliph of all Muslims due to his interpretation of the term pan-Islamism for his political agenda in the late-18th century. Pan-Islamism as uniting all Muslims against Western powers, is why the Sultan claimed to rule over them all. If all Muslims are to come together, they require one Muslim leader, so he thought he was that leader.

Question 30

What is a moral economy and why could you interpret the bread riots of the second half of the 19th century as a revolt against the breakdown of the moral economy in Iran?

Answer 30

The Bread riots took place as the urban poor revolted against economic leaders for allowing the market to be misregulated and destructed, not generated by hunger, but rather the political and social anger spurred on by the manipulation of the market in pursuit of private gain and no protection of the lower classes and welfare of the citizen population. Thompson, who wrote the article on this, identifies the key tone of the bread riots as the concept of a moral economy, meaning there are certain financial and market decisions which create a critical audience when those decisions don’t protect consumers and mid-level producers, rooted in elite paternalism, the Iranian subjects look to their state to protect the communal financial efforts. The event was labeled a riot by the elite who didn’t understand the foundation of the revolt and the attitude of the crisis. This perhaps posed a turning point in the foundations of citizen political identity in Iran as a precursor to the constitutional revolution.

Question 31

What were the developments in the 19th century Ottoman Empire that gave rise to the emergence of pan-Islamism? * How did the Young Ottomans view modernity and Islam? * While the rulers of the Ottoman Empire embraced pan-Islamism, the Qajars and The ulama in Iran didn’t. Why?

Answer 31

The Qajars and ulama in Iran thought that by grouping up with the Ottoman Empire, it would decrease their already fraught legitimacy among the Iranian subjects. Going back to the Safavid empire, the Qajars were more intellectual and structurally integral via the ulama, but the Safavids’ belief in divine justification in rule and enacting that belief through their religion increased their legitimacy.

Question 32

How and why was pan-Islamism a transnational movement?

Answer 32

There were specific efforts advocating for pan-Islamism to be exerted through a transnational Islamic coalition of many countries together, whose rulers work together to unite Muslims rather than the domination of one application of Islamism, which made it clear that there were different versions of Islam, which made pan-Islamism also mean the reform of Islam overall.

Question 33

In Qajar Iran, there were roughly three groups that were seeing Islam as a force to counter European imperialism. Which ones? What were their differences

Answer 33

There was firs a grou pf individuals that didn’t recognize the Ottoman caliphate, but embrace Islamic unity to stop European expansion, including Talibov-I Tabrizi which embrace modern nationalist tendencies. Then there was the group of people who recognized the ottoman caliphate, but weren’t commited to Islam and were rather secular like Mirza Agha Kham Kermani who was a secular, anti-clerical thinker. Then there were those committed to pan-Islamism to reform Islam and change society to stop European expansion from the inside out. Those who considered Islam and reason to be compatible. This includes Seyyed Jamal al-Din al-Afghani who is a revolutionary that challenged the Qajar state. Many of these different responses to the application of pan-Islamism and the claims of the Ottoman caliphate were perpetrated and spread throughout transnational networks and newspapers published outside Iran in Egypt and Istanbul.

Question 34

Which forms of pan-Islamism developed under Iranian dissident intellectuals? * What was the role of Seyyed Jamal al-Din Al-Afghani? What were his ideas?

Answer 34

He had experienced transnational Muslims from different backgrounds, leading to his work as a precursor to Islamic activism, utilizing the traditional Shia scholarship and coupling it with philosophical interests in anti-imperialism through Islamic unity.

Question 35

What is Orientalism?

Answer 35

Orientalism is the lens through which to view the relationship between Iran and the European powers. By distance, geographically and ideologically, assumptions about the East and the Persian people have been used to sort ideals and categorize them as well as differentiate a people-group from another. Orientalism in the Iranian context during the Qajar empire related to concepts of knowledge production in which early-modern scholars took to much agency in asserting differences between Iran and Europe. They also identified Occidentalism as reverse orientalism centered in the Middle East used to target the West. Understood by Edward Said as a claim of producing objective knowledge without the key understanding of how different populations are made up and socialized. They instead represent misguided relationships regarding colonial power including stereotypes and essentialization/generalization. Example: Utilizing photography as a way to take back these misguided representations of the Iranian identity, simultaneously simplifying and complicating the narrative of Iranian life. Being able to capture something in a photograph limits interpretation and attempts to grasp the “real” and separate it from the “thought” or “conceived”, the photography by Ali Behdad exemplifies this, and displays how orientalism was also internalized via domestic power dynamics and the representation of ‘dynastic power’ by presenting the tension occurring in modern forms of paternalism and religious/hierarchical tradition.

Question 36

What were its long-term causes?

Answer 36

Western imperialism and the emergence of capitalism including economic consequences and concessions with Britain and Russia which caused a negative impact on Iran’s population, especially its peasantry, evidenced by the Tobacco Revolts in 1891. Another consequence was the political loss of sovereignty, as well as social consequences via the weakened social status of the Qajar monarchy by creating discontent among the traditional middle class (bazaaris and clerics), discontent among peasants, and developing a new educated middle class (intelligentsia) influenced by new occupations and ideas from the West like (nationalism, liberalism, and socialism) Defensive modernization failed which led to a weak state bureaucracy and army and tribes maintained autonomous power The state failed to raise taxes which caused deficits and caused the need to borrow and give away concessions to Western neighbors

Question 37

What were the Constitution's short-term causes?

Answer 37

Monsieur Naus incident in late 1905 when Naus 1904-5 economic crisis brought about by the government bankruptcy and inflation as Muzaffar al-Din Shah threatened to raise land taxes and default on loans from local creditors, turning to western banks for new loans while already in debt. In exchange, Britain and Russia agreed if Muzaffar handed over the customs system perpetuated by Monsieur Naus. While it was rumored the Naus was Jewish and preferred the Armenians over the Muslims. A photo was distributed throughout the public of him dressed as a mullah (clergy member) at a ball. The economic crisis caused a crack-down on bazaaris along with a fall in the value of silver

Question 38

Which protest forms were used in the Constitutional Revolution?

Answer 38

In 1906, there were major protests among the Iranian public that pressured Muzaffar al-Din Shah, causing him to concede and sign a decree for constituent assembly elections in August. The protests began in June when important mujtaheds led the procession of seminary students, the protests began as the students assembled in Tehran with bazaaris and clerics at the British legation. They demanded the dismissal of Monsieur Naus, the establishment of a parliament via the House of justice, and a written constitution to itemize the rights provided to citizens. The types of protests included the threat of not holding religious services until political changes were made and the shah dismissed Naus and the governor, stop the bank construction and establish the House of Justice.

Question 39

Which groups supported or opposed it?

Answer 39

The mujtaheds supported the revolution, along with other seminary students, bazaaris, and intelligentsia, while those who opposed it included the Shah, conservative/moderate members in parliament, and the economic/political elite.

Question 39

How did the Constitutional Revolution develop between 1906-11? In other words, what are some of the main events and figures in its history?

Answer 39

In October 1906, the First Majles of parliament meeting formed to create the constitution, but parliament failed to reach a consensus and agree on the government’s next steps because of partisan division among Moderates and Liberals. In 1908, There was a counter-revolution perpetuated by the Shah, including support by Russian and British forces. Until July of the next year there was a civil war, which ended with victory for constitutionalists. The 2nd Majles was formed in 1909-1911 but they were still divided along partisan lines between Moderates and Democrats. In 1911 there was a Russian intervention and for the next decade there was noticeable instability and crises taking place during the first World War.

Question 40

What were its achievements? Which institutions developed during the Constitutional Revolution in its support?

Answer 40

The Bill of Rights agreed upon in 1911, enumerated liberties to Iranian citizens, as well as the creation of a National Flag to symbolize unity in the nation, as well as reestablishing Shi’ism as the official religion, and the arguable the most important, the formation of the Guardian Council of officials similar to a Senate, but with religious foundations, created to make sure church and state officials agree and exist to support one another. Popular assemblies of citizens in communities called anjumans (women form their own as well), including the formation/organization of distinct political parties with manifestos/platforms, as well as the growth of the political press and increased involvement of citizens in their government.

Question 41

After initial success, there was a counter-revolution in June 1908. Which factors allowed the Shah to organize a counter-revolution?

Answer 41

The counter-revolution was supported by foreign powers and the maing government elites including the Shah. The Anglo-Russian convention in 1907 stopped the rivalry between Britain and Russia, and Iran’s parliament’s tax reform created backlash along with partisan division which disrupted non-elite power. The liberal’s far reaching secular reform proposals created backlash and division among clerics which broke down the revolution’s strength/unity.

Question 42

What was the role of foreign powers?

Answer 42

The foreign powers supported the Shah and the counter-revolution, putting pressure on the people by asking for loans back from the government, and the Cossacks put military pressure on the revolution supporters. The leader of the Cossacks was a Russian, and mobilized military forces via a brigade. The Shah, the court, the Cossacks, Sheik Fazlollah Nuri and his supporters, as well as the Shahsavan tribes, mobilized in support of the counter-revolution.

Question 43

Which forces supported the Constitutionalists?

Answer 43

Supporters of the Consitutional Revolution included volunteers from outside Rian via revolutionary socialists and Armenian radicals, the army commander Mohammad Vali Sepahdar, the forced of Yeprem Kham in northern Iran, as well as the Bakhtiyari tribes in southern Iran

Question 44

Why did the Constitutional Revolution fail?

Answer 44

The party divisions taking place within the group of parliament members that started the revolution. The lack of a central state paradoxically undermined the revolution and generated its failure. The parliament was challenging the central state, advocating for its decentralization, though if their efforts were more centralized/united, they could’ve won. - Weak central state - Financial constraints from mobilizing volunteers without help from elite/central banks - Powerful tribal leaders fighting for autonomy rather than unity and shared responsibility - Partisan divisions between Moderates/Liberals in the 1st Parliament and Democrats/Radicals in 2nd Parliament posed infighting and distractions from the counter-revolution’s efforts - Russia and Britain intervened with great military and economic consequences.