Module 1

Question 1

physiology

Answer 1

-body functions
-multiple organs work together
-“why” & “how”

integrative system - unifying separate organs

Question 2

what is the human body made up of?

Answer 2

water

Question 3

water is inside and out of cells. what are the biological terms for this?

Answer 3

intracellular - inside cells
extracellular - outside cells

Question 4

what does it mean for the body to be in homeostasis?

Answer 4

normal range/state of balance

ability of organisms to keep relatively stable internal environment in face of changing external conditions

Question 5

what throws the body off balance?

Answer 5

variable

Question 6

what is counter response and how does it play into negative feedback?

Answer 6

variable is what throws the body off balance. counter response is a reply to the variable - negative feedback is all about bringing the body back to normal range and the counter response aids min that.

Question 7

what maintains homeostasis in the body?

Answer 7

negative feedback

Question 8

what are the extreme low and high levels of ph?

Answer 8

low: acidic
high: alkaline

Question 9

what are the ranges for blood glucose

Answer 9

hypoglycemia 0 hyperglycemia

Question 10

how is body temperature an example of homeostasis?

Answer 10

body temperature is an example of homeostasis because the body senses a change in temperature above or below 37 C and alerts the hypothalamus to bring it back to the original set point.

Question 11

how is blood staying within a certain ph range a form of homeostasis?

Question 12

explain how blood glucose is regulated when it’s too high.

Answer 12

glucose is sugar.

when you eat, blood glucose rises.

when blood sugar is too high, insulin is released (“feed me”) so that it can make cells take in glucose, stores glucose in muscles, liver & fat for later energy use.

Question 13

explain what happens when blood glucose is too low

Answer 13

glucagon is released, causes liver to release glucose into blood - prevents from blood glucose from dropping too low.

Question 14

explain how blood glucose is an example of homeostasis

Answer 14

blood glucose is either regulated by insulin or glucagon. glucagon helps prevent it from dropping too low and bringing it back to the set point by causing liver to release glucose into the blood and insulin is released when there’s too much blood glucose and forces cells to take in the glucose to be stored for later usage. together, the hormones glucagon and insulin control blood sugar levels and keep them within the set point.

Question 15

what are sensors, stimulus and effectors?

Answer 15

sensors: sense change / effectors: cause response

stimulus: center that compares current conditions to the set point

stimulus is measured by sensor (input) - often neurons that measure chemicals & temperature.

Question 16

what is positive feedback?

Answer 16

does not keep the body in homeostasis; amplifies the stimulus

less common in body, amplifies effect of disturbance, response makes initial stimulus greater, drives system to an extreme

Question 17

difference between stimulus and sensor

Question 18

explain how the body would react in extreme Texas heat (high body temperature) and explain whether this is negative or positive feedback

Answer 18

1) nerves (sensors) - heat detection

2) brain is notified and sent signals to counteract variable

3) sweat glands: activated & heat lost as sweat evaporates off skin

4) skin turns red

5) blood vessels dilate to get rid of heat

body temp lowered!

this is negative feedback because the original variable threw the body off of balance and the counter response brings the body temp back to 37 C

Question 19

explain how AC blasting relates to homeostasis and what type of feedback it is

Answer 19

1) sweating profusely so AC helps to stop the sweating

2)muscle contractions (tightening, shortening muscles when you hold/pick up something, stretch, or exercise with weights) - shivering caused and it generates heat

3) blood vessels - constrict to conserve heat to make it hard to escape

body temp brought back to stable point!

this is a form of negative feedback because the variable originally was throwing the body out of balance because it’s too hot and the counter response of the outside variables (AC) would serve as the counter response and help bring the body to a stable body temperature.

Question 20

how does a baby being born relate to homeostasis and what type of feedback is it?

Answer 20

1) pressure on the cervix

2) pressure & hormones cause contractions of uterus

therefore, more hormones cause more contractions & pressure —- releasing more hormones and more contractions & pressure - hence it is positive feedback because it is amplifying the variable

Question 21

cellular respiration

Answer 21

series of chemical reactions that break down glucose to produce ATP

Question 22

explain Type 1 Diabetes

Answer 22

pancreas makes hormones but for patients that have diabetes, there is no proper hormone production - therefore insulin (which is a hormone) is not released so blood sugar is not able to go into cells. blood sugar (glucose) outside of cells cannot be used in cellular respiration (chemical reaction that break down glucose to produce ATP) - ATP is the energy produced from cellular respiration breaking down glucose.

so because cells have to take in glucose to make ATP energy in cellular respiration - diabetic patients don’t have the hormone insulin present to make that process work. therefore, patients have to give themselves insulin and monitor their glucose because negative feedback doesn’t work the way that they should.

diabetic patients monitor blood sugar because too much glucose can cause damage to organs over time. low blood sugar is typically treated by eating fast acting carbs (sugars) like juice, soda, candies. type 1 diabetics only inject glucagon if it’s extremely low

solution for type 1 diabetes patients: give themselves insulin and monitor blood sugar cuz negative feedback doesn’t work as it should.

Question 23

what does anatomy answer

Answer 23

“what”

Question 24

purpose of concept maps

Answer 24

organize thoughts & connections between different ideas and concepts

Question 25

organ systems

Answer 25

made up of different organs and tissues working together for one major function

Question 26

difference between external environment and internal environment

Answer 26

external: parts of the body directly connected to the outside internal: material from external environment brought into body across epithelial cells, & into blood vessels which circulate material to rest of the body. This is also how body removes waste from internal environment. epithelial cells: type of cell that covers the inside and outside of surfaces of your body. external: gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary, skin & reproductive internal: endocrine, nervous, cardiovascular, immune, muscles

Question 27

why is gastrointestinal part of the external environment?

Answer 27

digestive open from mouth to anus. when you eat - if it's digested but not absorbed into cell, it passes through the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines and out the anus. it stays in external environment part of the intestines. when a molecule is absorbed on outside into the body, it crosses into one of the cells.

Question 28

how does the body regulate the internal environment?

Answer 28

through negative feedback to maintain homeostasis even as external environment changes

Question 29

what does the total body water consist of?

Answer 29

def: all of the water in all the body's internal compartments (not including digestive tract and other external components) total body water - inside cells (intracellular fluid) ICF & outside cells (extracellular fluid) ECF within ECF: plasma (liquid in blood) & interstitial fluid (fluid outside other cells like neurons and muscles) interstitial fluid - not in cell or blood vessel - basically everything else

Question 30

why is interstitial fluid considered to be part of the internal environment? what is interstitial space?

Answer 30

because it is OUTSIDE of the cells but still inside the body. don't confuse this with intracellular fluid because that's talking about being INSIDE the cells. the area outside of cells is interstitial space

Question 31

how much of the total body water (TBW) is in ICF?

Answer 31

2/3

Question 32

reproductive system

Answer 32

generate offspring

Question 33

gastrointestinal system

Answer 33

breaks down food and absorbs into body

Question 34

urinary system

Answer 34

filters blood to regulate acidity, blood volume and ion concentrations eliminates waste

Question 35

respiratory system

Answer 35

O2 into body CO2 out

Question 36

cardiovascular system

Answer 36

transports molecules throughout body in bloodstream helps move material from 1 part of body to another

Question 37

musculoskeletal system

Answer 37

supports body allows voluntary movement facial expressions

Question 38

immune system

Answer 38

defends body against pathogens and abnormal cells pathogens: organisms causing disease to its host

Question 39

integumentary

Answer 39

protects body from external environment

Question 40

endocrine system

Answer 40

provides communication between cells of body through release of hormones into bloodstream regulates all biological processes from conception to old age like metabolism, growth, sexual function, heart rate, blood pressure, appetite, body temp, sleep & waking cycles uses hormones to send messages to target cells through blood

Question 41

nervous system

Answer 41

uses electrical impulse to send messages through neurons neurotransmitters: body's chemical messengers. carry messages from one nerve cell to next nerve, muscle or cell. these messages help you move your limbs, feel sensations, keep heart beating, and take in and respond to all information your body receives from other internal parts of body and environment

Question 42

difference between nervous and endocrine system

Answer 42

endocrine: produce hormones - involuntary - transmitted through blood vessels - hormones can be either nervous: send signals in form of nerve impulse - can be both voluntary and involuntary - transmitted by nerve cells called neurons - nerve impulse are short-lived efforts - involved in transmitting and interpreting sensory information (endocrine isn't)

Question 43

mass balance / input & output / law of mass balance

Answer 43

def: balance what comes into and leaves body & helps body maintain homeostasis of water & solutes solutes: substance that is dissolved in a solution purpose: to maintain constant level, output must equal input ex) amount of water that comes in is same amount that goes out mass balance consists of input and output input: intake through intestine, lungs, skin (through what we eat, breathe etc) - leading to metabolic production (diff chemicals produced in bodies through chemical reactions) output: excretion by kidneys, liver, lungs, skin (urine, feces, sweat) - process: metabolism to a new substance (chemicals going through more chemical reactions to become more substances) law of mass balance: mass balance = existing body load + intake (metabolic production) - excretion (metabolic removal)

Question 44

why does homeostasis act in particular on extracellular fluid?

Answer 44

to maintain correct amount of water & molecules outside of cells - which allows cells to function properly

Question 45

normal range of body

Answer 45

37 C (98.6 F) but remember that it's within a range. 37 is ideal but can fluctuate a couple diseases but that's normal -regardless of outside weather -body temp always fluctuates -if body temp too high, body has a way of bringing it back to normal range (ex of neg.)

Question 46

negative feedback

Answer 46

maintains homeostasis & opposes stimulus keeps parameters steady decreases effect of initial disturbance if something increases, body acts to decrease it

Question 47

explain how cruise control of a vehicle is an example of negative feedback

Answer 47

1) setting speed as "set point" 2) car goes up hill 3) stimulus: speed goes down because of having to go up - engine senses error hence more gas flow to engine increases 4) speed increases (response) - error signal decreases - car goes back to set point this is an example of response opposing stimulus --- notice how stimulus and response are opposites. in positive feedback, the stimulus increases, hence it stays the same. summary: stimulus: car slows down below set point response: car goes faster to return to set point

Question 48

example of temperature control in a fish tank if temperature drops and if it rises include sensors, integrating center,

Answer 48

1) fish tank set to desired temperature 2) sensors (thermometer) - that sense the temperature 3) control box (integrating center) - compares current temperature to set point and initiates response if temp below set point - control box turns on heater to warm up temperature. integrating center gets information from the sensor. effectors: cause response drops: heater turned on to get back up to set point since temperature has dropped effector: heater (physical object) response: heating up water ^^ this is an act of opposing the initial stimulus because the temperature was again brought back to the original desired set point. rises: temperature goes above set point, heater turns off to let water cool down - because the control box is only able to generate heat and not cool air.

Question 49

why do our bodies control internal parameters in both directions?

Answer 49

so that we can always stay near set point

Question 50

how do effectors in human body change response levels

Answer 50

as dials - refer to image. effectors: cause response - dials in body to sense change by sensors and effectors actually do something about it.

Question 51

key components of negative feedback

Answer 51

1) input: stimulus measured by sensor (often neurons that measure) 2) integration: something needs to take information from sensor and compare it to set point integrating center typically in nervous and endocrine systems 3) response: integrating center relays signals to cells/tissues (effectors: cause response) to bring about final response (effectors are objects & response is action)

Question 52

thermostat example - seeking to increase the room temperature

Answer 52

if room temp is lower than set point, heater turned on. how? - thermostat senses low temperature than set point, therefore turn on. once the temperature returns to desired set point, the heater will be turned off sensor: thermometer thermostat: integrating center measuring: room temperature stimulus: lowering temperature effector: heater - because it's causing the response response: heat goes up (refer to picture)

Question 53

regulation of body temperature on a cold day and the 3 responses generated - and how this is an example of negative feedback where the response opposes the stimulus

Answer 53

stimulus: low body temperature ^^^ sensed by: sensors (thermo-receptors in skin and hypothalamus) which are neurons hypothalamus function: keeping body in homeostasis and is located in brain sensors are able to sense that the body temperature is lower than the set point - so sensors alert the hypothalamus which is the integrating center because it is comparing the current conditions of low body temperature to the set point and the hypothalamus has sensed that something needs to be done. therefore, it can generate 3 responses. 1st response: effector: skeletal muscles contract - this is an effector because muscles are an object - causing a response: shivering which generates heat by using a lot of ATP - leading to high body temperature - hence opposing the stimulus of low body temperature remember: During aerobic cellular respiration, glucose reacts with oxygen, forming ATP that can be used by the cell. ATP is essentially stored energy 2nd response: you put a coat on because you are cold - this is an example of changing behaviors but if you didn't have a coat, 1st response would happen most likely 3rd response: blood vessels get smaller (remember this is effector because vessels are an object) - response: vessels vasoconstrict because it will create less heat loss through skin because vessels are preserving heat by becoming smaller. vessels are contacted because heat is carried in blood. typically heat leaves blood through skin but vasoconstriction helps you to hold onto the heat.

Question 54

why does your body generate a fever when you're sick? and how is this an example of negative feedback?

Answer 54

purpose of having a fever: controlling body temperature to help kill off infection. high temp kills viruses and bacteria hypothalamus: keeps body in homeostasis when sick, set point changed by hypothalamus to higher level to kill off functions body initiates warming behaviors to help produce higher temperature and fever by causing shivering and vasoconstriction once infection is gone, set point wants to go back to normal but you're hotter than usual so people typically get fever breaks where sweating and vasodilation is caused to generate cooling behaviors

Question 55

example of running but passing out due to past burns

Answer 55

pt's body temp was too high so they passed out - but found out that pt has burns from 5 years ago so the body no longer has sweat glands so they're unable to cool off, hence causing a heat stroke and causing passing out

Question 56

why do you get warmer during running

Answer 56

muscles require a lot of energy during contraction (tightening of muscle) contractions: muscles rely on ATP (stored cellular energy from process of cellular respiration) ... ATP is made by breaking down glucose (body's main source of energy, comes from the food you eat) ... leading to heat production and body is able to do that because of the energy stored so during runs, muscles make lots of ATP, causing lots of heat which later causes sweating that lowers body temperature back to normal

Question 57

why do we shiver when we're cold

Answer 57

muscles contract, helping to produce heat with ATP - to help higher up body temperature with stored energy (ATP)

Question 58

what is ATP responsible for

Answer 58

cellular movement, muscle contractions, nerve impulse transmissions, protein synthesis requires O2, produces CO2 Cellular respiration converts ingested nutrients in the form of glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen to energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). CO2 is produced as a byproduct of this reaction.

Question 59

heat exhaustion vs heat stroke

Answer 59

heat exhaustion: get too hot - excessive sweating - causes faint, dizzy, sweating, cool skin, n&v, weak pulse, muscle cramps - cooler environment helps, water, & cold showers heat stroke: too much heat, but body isn't responding - hence no sweat, so body is unable to cool down - medical attention necessary. heat stroke causes headache, confusion, no sweating, 103 F, red skin, vomit, strong pulse and loss of consciousness - solutions: don't drink anything, cool bath, cooler place

Question 60

regulation of osmolarity by kidney

Question 61

baroreceptor reflex to maintain blood pressure if blood pressure increases above normal, baroreceptors in major arteries detect the change and send signals to brain. certain areas of the brain then send signals to nerves that control heart and blood vessels to make heart beat slower and blood vessels increase in diameter, which in turn reduce the blood pressure.

Answer 61

baroreceptors: send signals to the brain and the signals are interpreted as a rise in blood pressure. The brain sends signals to other parts of the body to reduce blood pressure such as the blood vessels, heart and kidneys. negative feedback

Question 62

heart rate

Answer 62

controls how much blood leaves heart & how much blood goes to other tissues

Question 63

why would we want to increase blood flow during exercise?

Answer 63

sympathetic nervous system: network of nerves that helps body activate fight or flight & activated when stressed, in danger or exercising when you exercise, sympathetic nervous system is activated - releasing epinephrine into blood (adrenaline) adrenaline makes your heart beat faster and lungs breathe efficiently - causing blood vessels to send more blood to brain & muscles, increases blood pressure, makes brain more alter, and raises sugar level in blood to give energy and adrenaline also delivers more oxygen to muscles

Question 64

blood vessels

Answer 64

keep blood flowing, supplying tissues with oxygen and nutrients and keep organs such as the heart healthy

Question 65

regulation of heart rate during exercise

Answer 65

1) active muscles (use oxygen) - when cells are active they need oxygen to make ATP, which is used for energy for our muscles. 2) oxygen decreases, CO2 increases (stimulus) cuz stimulus is decreased O2 since muscles are using O2 (there are sensors that can measure oxygen and carbon dioxide) 3) brain - integrating center 4) activate sympathetic nervous system ("fight or flight")(object so it's effector) there can be multiple effectors in this scenario: heart because heart rate goes up epinephrine because heart rate goes up sympathetic nervous system because we release epinephrine (it all depends on which part of the pathway we're looking at) 5) sympathetic system release epinephrine, increased heart rate -> increased blood flow -> more oxygen to active muscles because oxygen is carried in blood on red blood cells -> something is happening (response) example of negative feedback because response opposes stimulus how to count resting pulse rate: count pulse for 30 seconds. multiply by 2 how to count heart rate after exercise: after exercising, count pulse for 30 second and multiply by 2 heart rate increases during exercise because -increasing O2 delivery to muscles (this is the purpose) -adrenaline rush (epinephrine) signals for heart beat faster (this is the mechanism for signaling the heart to beat faster)

Question 66

LH surge causes ovulation (+)

Answer 66

LH: hormone that signals ovaries to release estrogen (sex hormone responsible for development and regulation of female reproductive system) (estrogen is a hormone that travels in blood and signals other cells) pituitary (releases several hormones that carry out bodily functions like growth, development and metabolism) estrogen signals pituitary to release more LH - both LH & estrogen increase rapidly increase in LH and estrogen cause egg to be released from ovary once a month during menstrual cycle - causing ovulation (release of egg in fallopian tubes) if consuming birth control: affects this whole system because it inhibits (prevents) pituitary. birth control contains estrogen and progesterone. but estrogen is at a low concentration. prevents pituitary from releasing LH in the first place.

Question 67

if your body is above the set point

Answer 67

blood flow to skin will increase via vasodilation of blood vessels because it's trying to get rid of the heat wouldn't start shivering because you're not preserving the heat you can technically bring it down by going to the shade as that is a form of changing behaviors but blood vessels dilating to get rid of heat is better you will not definitely have a heat stroke because you don't always have heat strokes, that only happens if your body isn't able to respond properly

Question 68

positive feedback example - hormone regulation of uterine contractions during birth because you need more hormones, contractions and pressures to push baby out

Answer 68

not insulin regulation of blood glucose levels because insulin not body temperature regulation when you go from a very hot environment into a very cold room because body temp is brought back to a stable point

Question 69

We learned that fever is not a failure of homeostasis, in fact it demonstrates how well the body can control body temperature.  What causes a fever? - C

Answer 69

a) sensors become effectors as well. no because sensors sense change and effectors cause change. it can never be the same thing. b) hypothalamus becomes less active - no because hypothalamus is in charge of homeostasis c) set point becomes higher - YES because set point which is the body’s normal temperature of 37 C becomes higher by the hypothalamus to kill off fever d) sensors no longer send signals to integrating center -

Question 70

water in red blood cells

Answer 70

intracellular

Question 71

water that surrounds blood cells

Answer 71

plasma

Question 72

what 3 places is water found in

Answer 72

intracellular, extracellular and ---

Question 73

which environment does homeostasis care about

Answer 73

internal - not external internal because it's making sure that the body has enough water, right levels of ions and sugars, right temp

Question 74

reproductive system - external or internal

Answer 74

external

Question 75

what does the digestive tract consist of

Answer 75

mouth to anus - part of external

Question 76

why is mouth part of external

Answer 76

inside of mouth is same as air outside

Question 77

fluid inside blood cells is intracellular. how

Answer 77

because it is INSIDE of a cell. ex) when you take a blood test, doctors spin it to separate plasma from cells

Question 78

what environment is extracellular apart of

Answer 78

internal because it is inside of the body. external is everything out of the body. extracellular is fluid outside of cells

Question 79

what is almost always the center

Answer 79

neurons (nerve cells) - they can be from the brain, skin can be endocrine cells - hormones integrating center almost always going to be the brain - hypothalamus is a major center

Question 80

negative feedback: regulating blood pressure

Answer 80

something happens and our blood pressure goes up baroreceptors that sense blood pressure that sends signals to cardiovascular center in medulla (brainstem) medulla: regulates heartbeat, blood pressure, and breathing medulla activates parasympathetic nervous system and tells the heart rate to decrease, which leads to decreasing blood pressure stimulus: high blood pressure response: lowered blood pressure effector: parasympathetic nervous system (effector causes response of decreased heart rate and decreased blood pressure) (heart rate and high blood pressure cannot be an effector because it is not an object.) sensors: baroreceptors (sensors send information to integrating center) cardiovascular center in medulla: integrating center (medulla would be the set point because it regulates blood pressure and it senses that something's wrong)

Question 81

parts of negative feedback

Answer 81

-stimulus sensed by sensors -information sent to integrating center (activates, inhibits effector) -effector causes response

Question 82

negative feedback of pressing brake on car when going over speed limit

Answer 82

sensor: speedometer and eyes driver: integrating center (know the set point of area) sensory input from speedometer effector; foot and brake response: slow down

Question 83

examples of positive feedback

Answer 83

hormone #1 causes release of hormone #2, which stimulates release of #1 (estrogen and LH) exponential growth of human population - more people you have, more children you'll have and so one

Question 84

a broken heater that is always on, even during summer (why is this not either negative or positive feedback)

Answer 84

it's not responding to any type of stimulus, it's just broken,

Question 85

during a blood clot, platelets release ADP, which stimulates platelet aggregation, causing platelets to release more ADP

Answer 85

blood clots: break blood vessel open but you don't bleed out because blood clots form to block off energy ADP: signal platelets release ADP, causing platelets to aggregate and release more ADP positive feedback

Question 86

at the time of birth, uterine contractions push baby towards cervix. receptors in cervix detect the pressure caused by the baby and cause the release of a hormone called oxytocin. this hormone stimulates stronger uterine contractions, which push more on the baby, causing an increase in pressure and another increase in oxytocin. the cycle continues until the baby is delivered from the mother.

Answer 86

positive feedback

Question 87

consumption of caffeine increases urine output causing dehydration

Answer 87

neither you consume caffeine. caffeine is a diuretic, produces urine output and become dehydrated. there's no responses or stimulus. but if the problem had said that you become thirsty, leading to drinking more caffeine, causing more dehydration - that could possibly be a form of positive feedback