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GEN LEC > Module 1 > Flashcards

Module 1 Flashcards

1
Q

pre-existing cells divide to form new cells

A

Cell Division / Cell Reproduction

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2
Q

the entire sequence of events happening from the end of one nuclear division to the beginning of the next.

A

Cell cycle

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3
Q

DNA synthesis alternates with mitosis

A

Chromosome cycle

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4
Q

Cell growth alternates with cytokinesis

A

Cytoplasmic cycle

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5
Q

cytoplasmic and chromosome cycle require the centrosome to be inherited and duplicated precisely to form mitotic spindle

A

Centrosome cycle

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6
Q

four phases of cell cycle

A

G1, S, G2, M

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7
Q

cells that

  • have distinct nuclei complete with intact nuclear envelope
  • chromosomes occur in the form of diffused, long, coiled and indistinctly visible chromatin fibers
  • DNA amount becomes double during this time
  • nucleolus size is greatly increased
A

Interphase cells

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8
Q

loose DNA coiled around histones
look like beads on a string

A

Nucleosomes

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9
Q

coiled nucleosomes

is organized tighter by protein scaffold to form the condensed chromosome

A

Solenoid fiber

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10
Q

loose, thin and long; a DNA

A

Chromatin

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11
Q

condensed chromatin to make the process of segregation possible during M phase

A

Chromosomes

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12
Q

first order of DNA packaging in the nucleus

A

Chromatin Primary Structure

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13
Q

is a histone octamer composed of 2 copies of H2A, H2B, H3 and H4

is composed of 146 base pairs (bp) of superhelical DNA

A

nucleosome

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14
Q

are proteins which are rich in lysine and arginine residues and are thus positively-charged, the main reason that they can bind tightly to the negatively-charged phosphates in DNA

responsible for tightening the binding of the DNA

A

Histones

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15
Q

between nucleosomes

approximately 20 to 90 bp and varies among different species, tissues, and even fluctuates within a single cellular genome.

A

linker DNA

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16
Q

what structure

  • solenoid fiber

driven by salt and intrinsic nucleosome-nucleosome and
nucleosome DNA interactions and is stabilized by linker histones.

A

Chromatin Secondary Structure

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17
Q

what structure

-is formed from interactions between discrete secondary chromatin structures

A

Chromatin Tertiary Structure

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18
Q

Parts of Chromosome

A

centromere, telomere, arm

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19
Q

a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a chromatid

protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes

A

Telomere

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20
Q

Type of chromosome

centromere is in the middle and the chromosome arms are of equal length.

When a chromosome of this type is pulled to one pole during cell division, it appears V-shaped.

A

Metacentric

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21
Q

Type of chromosome

near the middle and the chromosome arms slightly vary in length

When pulled to one pole, this type of chromosomes appeared L-shaped

A

submetacentric

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22
Q

type of chromosome

centromere is near one end and the arms clearly vary in length; thus, p and q arms are easily distinguishable.

When a chromosome of this type is pulled to one pole during cell division, it appears J-shaped

A

acrocentric

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23
Q

type of chromosome

centromere is at one end and there is only 1 chromosome arm.

Thus, when pulled to one pole, this chromosome appears I shaped.

A

telocentric

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24
Q

what chromosomes belong in

  1. large metacentric
  2. large submetacentric
  3. medium submetracentric
  4. medium acrocentric
  5. short submetacentric
  6. short metacentric
  7. short acrocentric
A

A: 1-3
B: 4,5
C: 6-12, X
D: 13-15
E: 16-18
F: 19-20
G: 21-22 and Y

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25
Q
  • a resting phase
  • first gap phase since no DNA synthesis
  • also called first growth phase
  • synthesis of RNA, proteins and membranes
  • leads to the growth of nucleus and cytoplasm of each daughter cell
  • transcription of three types of RNAs, namely rRNA, tRNA and mRNA
  • 30-50 total time
A

G1 phase

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26
Q

Terminally differentiated somatic cells that no longer divide, are arrested usually in the G1 stage; such a type of G1 phase is called _________

A

G0 phase

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27
Q
  • synthetic phase
  • replication of DNA
  • synthesis of histone proteins
  • occupies roughly 35 to 45 percent of cell cycle.
A

S phase

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28
Q
  • a second gap or growth phase or resting phase
  • synthesis of RNA and proteins continues
    -10 to 20 percent time
A

G2 phase

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29
Q

is a short period of chromosome condensation, segregation and cytoplasmic division.

occurs in the somatic cells and it is meant for the multiplication of cell number during embryogenesis and blastogenesis of plants and animals

A

M phase or Mitotic phase

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30
Q

what stage in mitotic phase

  • Chromosomes condense and become visible
  • Spindle fibers emerge from the centrosomes
  • Nuclear envelope breaks down
  • nucleolus disappers
A

prophase

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31
Q

what stage in m phase

• Chromosomes continue to condense
• Kinetochores appear at the centromeres
• Mitotic spindle breaks down microtubules attach to kinetochores
• Centrosomes move toward opposite poles

A

prometaphase

32
Q
  • mitotic spindle is fully developed, centrosomes are at opposite poles of the cell
  • chromosomes are lined up at the ____________ plate
  • each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber originating from opposite poles
A

metaphase

33
Q
  • cohesin proteins binding the sister chromatids together break down
  • sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) are pulled toward opposite poles
  • Non-kinetochore spindle fibers lengthen, elongating the cell
A

anaphase

34
Q
  • chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin t o decondense
  • nuclear envelope material surrounds each set of chromosomes
  • the mitotic spindle breaks down
A

telophase

35
Q

animal cells: a cleavage furrow separates the daughter cells

plant cells: a cell plate separates the daughter cells

A

cytokinesis

36
Q

primary point at which cell must choose whether or not to divide

checks for cell size, availability of nutrients, DNA damage or replication errors

A

G1 checkpoint

37
Q

checks if cells already have all the requirements for division

checks for DNA damage and whether DNA replication has really been completed

A

G2 checkpoint

38
Q

checks if all chromosomes are properly attached to the mitotic spindle

A

M checkpoint or spindle checkpoint

39
Q

—the constriction of cytoplasm into two separate cells

  • usually begins in anaphase and continues through telophase and into interphase.

The first sign of cleavage in animal
cells is puckering and furrowing of the plasma membrane during
anaphase.

A

Cytokinesis or cytoplasmic division

40
Q

During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm divides by a process, called

A

cleavage

41
Q

is the longest stage of the meiotic division

A

first prophase

42
Q

Prophase I includes following substages (5)

A

Leptotene/leptonema

Zygotene/zygonema

Pachytene/pachynema

Diplotene/diplonema

Diakinesis

43
Q

In the ___ substage of prophase I, chromosomes become more uncoiled and assume a long thread-like shape.

Along each chromosome are ___, localized condensations that resemble beads on a string.

A

Leptotene/Leptonema

chromomeres

44
Q

In the ___ substage of prophase I, The pairing of homologous chromosomes takes place. These chromosomes come from the mother (___) and father (___).

This pairing is known as ___.

A

Zygotene/Zygonema

Oocyte
Sperm
Synapsis

45
Q

Types of synapsis (3)

A

Proterminal synapsis
- end to centromeres

procentric synapsis
- centromeres to ends

localized pairing / random synapsis
- various points

46
Q

The homologous chromosomes are joined by a roughly 0.2um thick protein-containing framework called a ___.

A

synaptonemal complex (SC)

47
Q

upon completion of
zygonema that the paired homologs are
referred to as ______________

A

bivalents or tetrads

48
Q

Organisms in which crossing over does not occur and therefore has no synaptonemal complex

A

Drosophila melanogaster

49
Q

In the ___ substage of prophase I, the pair of chromosomes continue to coil and shorten and further development of the synaptonemal complex.

This is where the important genetic phenomenon called “___” takes place. Reshuffling and redistribution and mutual exchange of hereditary material.

A

Pachytene / Pachynema

Crossing over

50
Q

In pachytene,

Chromatids may divide transversely by the help of an enzyme called the ___.

Broken chromatid segments are united by the enzyme ___.

A

Endonuclease

Ligase

51
Q

In the ___ substage of prophase I, The synaptonemal complex disassembles and the homologous chromosomes begin to move apart.

The ___ shows the result of crossing-over. This is where homologous chromosomes are very tightly associated.

A

Diplotene/Diplonema

Chiasma

52
Q

___ is followed rapidly by the remaining stages of meiosis. However, in many animals the oocytes can remain in that form.

A

Diplonema

53
Q

In the ___ substage of prophase I, the chromosomes condense even more making it now posssible to see the four members of the tetrads

The chiasmata are clearly visible at this stage.

The nucleolus detaches and disappears. Nuclear envelope breaks down.

A

diakinesis

54
Q

In diakinesis, Chiasma moves from centromere towards the end of the chromosomes and the immediate chiasmata diminish, this is called ___.

Chromatids remain connected to the terminal chiasmata up until metaphase

A

Terminalization

55
Q

T or F: The synapsis and crossing-over phenomena applies only to homologous chromosomes the autosomes.

A

False, this can also apply to the Y chromosome of eutherian (placental) mammals.

This is due to their PARs or (Pseudo-autosomal regions) which is very important otherwise it will make the man sterile.

56
Q

During the ___ stage, the microtubules of the spindle are attached to the ___ at the ___ of the homologous chromosomes of each tetrad, aligning chromosomes at the equator.

Centromere is directed towards the opposite poles. The repulsive forces between the homologous chromosomes increase greatly and the chromosomes become ready to separate

A

Metaphase I

kinetochores
centromeres

57
Q

During the ___ stage, homologues are freed from each other due to the shortening of chromosomal fibers or microtubules.

Chromosomes with less terminal chiasmata separate more frequently.

The two chromatids of a chromosome do not resemble each other genetically

A

Anaphase I

58
Q

During the ___ stage, a haploid set of chromosomes arrive at each pole.

Nuclei are then reassembled.

___ forms near the nuclear envelope around the chromosomes and the chromosomes become uncoiled.

The ___ reappears and thus two daughter ___ are formed.

Karyokinesis and cytokinesis occur and two haploid cells are formed.

Short interphase occurs

A

Telophase I

endoplasmic reticulum

Nucleolus
Nuclei

59
Q

During the ___ stage, each centriole divides into two and thus two pairs of it are formed. Each pair migrates to the opposite pole, microtubules form a spindle again.

Nuclear membrane and Nucleolus disappear

A

Prophase II

60
Q

During the ___ stage, chromosomes arrange themselves on the equator. Chromosome produces two monads or daughter chromosomes. Spindle attach to centromere through kinetochore.

A

Metaphase II

61
Q

During the ___ stage, daughter chromosomes move towards the opposite poles due to the shortening of the ___ and stretching of ___ of the spindle.

A

Anaphase II

chromosomal microtubules

interzonal microtubules

62
Q

During the ___ stage, endoplasmic reiculum forms nuclear envelope around chromosome and nucleolus reappears. Karyokinesis and cytokinesis occur and Four haploid cells are formed.

A

Telophase II

63
Q

Significance of meiosis (2)

A
  1. definite number of chromosomes in organisms
  2. Crossing over allows exchange of genes thus variation
64
Q

Q
Meiosis occurs in the ___ cells of sexually reproducing organisms. And these cells are localized in the ___.

A

Germ

Gonads

65
Q

___ or ___ is found in animals and a few lower plants. Meiotic division occurs immediately before the formation of gametes or gametogenesis.

Meiosis takes place in the gonads and results in the formation of gametes

A

Terminal or Gametic meiosis

66
Q

During this type of life cycle, a reproductive cell reproduces haploid gametes (egg and sperm) to make zygote.

A

Gametic life cycle

67
Q

___ or ___ is characteristic of flowering plants. Just before flowering or between fertilization and formation of gametes. It is involved in the production of ___ in ___ (___) and ___ in ___ or ___(___)

A

Intermediary or sporic meiosis

microspores in anthers (microsporogenesis)

megaspores in ovary or pistil (megasporogenesis)

68
Q

Long dominant diploid and multicellular generation :

Short, multicellular haploid generation:

A

Sporophyte

Gametophyte

69
Q

___ or ___ occurs in some algae, fungi, and diatoms. Meiotic division occurs immediately after fertilization. The most simple sexual life cycle is called the ___.

These organisms are ___ during most of their life cycle. The zygote is the only ___ phase.

A

Initial or zygotic meiosis

zygotic life cycle

Haploid
Diploid

70
Q

Applications of Genetics (7)

A

Agriculture

Production of transgenic organisms

Medicine

Legal applications

Industries

Humans

Environment

71
Q

Selective breeding has been practiced for a while now. Fruits have longer shelf life. Animals are bigger, can give more meat and can produce more milk. All of these can be translated as an increase in food
production.

A

agriculture

72
Q

These are organisms that are formed by combining the genes of different organism.

are resistant to pests and diseases

can be produced with inserted genes for human growth hormone (HGH) to make them grow large very fast, shortening the developmental period and increasing yield and
income at a shorter time.

A

The production of transgenic organisms

73
Q

Genetics has been used in the accurate diagnosis of
diseases, especially in the case of inherited diseases. The use of
genetics in medicine has also led to the identification of drug
sensitivities, prevention of use of medicine or even disease
prevention.

A

medicine

74
Q

This includes the use of gathering samples and
doing DNA testing on them to identify the possible perpetrators of a crime, or to check parentage of a child.

A

Legal applications.

75
Q

Genetics has provided some synthetically produced raw materials for industries. For example, the brewing industry may use geneticists to improve the strains of yeast that product the
alcohol. The pharmaceutical industry has developed strained of molds, bacteria and other microorganisms which have high antibiotic yield.

A

industries

76
Q

All of the benefits mentioned above benefit humans

______ can also address deficiencies by having corrections done to the baby’s genetic structure.

Life span of humans have also been increased due to availability of vaccines,
medications and vitamins, among others.

A

In humans.

Gene therapy

77
Q

The environment has benefited from the availability of genetically modified microorganism which have the capability to
degrade waste materials rapidly.

The process of ______________
which refers to the use of either naturally occurring or deliberately
introduced microorganisms or other forms of life to consume and
break down environmental pollutants, in order to clean up a polluted
site.

A

Environment;

bioremediation

GEN LEC (13 decks)

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