Module 1 Cells and Tissue Flashcards
(191 cards)
1
Q
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
A
Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle
2
Q
What percentage of body mass is muscle tissue?
A
Approximately 50%
3
Q
What are the key characteristics of skeletal muscle? (ie, structure ((1 word)), control, attachment)
A
Striated, voluntary control, attached to bones by tendons
4
Q
What distinguishes cardiac muscle?
A
Branched cells, intercalated discs, single central nucleus, involuntary
5
Q
What makes smooth muscle unique?
A
Non-striated, involuntary, located in hollow internal structures
(eg: intestines), short, small, spindle shaped; single cell nucleus
6
Q
What are myofibrils?
A
Tubular structures inside muscle cells containing contractile proteins
7
Q
What are the two types of myofilaments and what proteins are they made of?
A
Thin filaments (actin) and thick filaments (myosin)
8
Q
What is a sarcomere?
A
The basic functional unit of muscle, defined by Z discs, a small section of a myofibril
9
Q
What are the key components of a sarcomere?
A
A band, I band, H zone, M line, Z discs
10
Q
How do muscles contract at the molecular level?
A
Sliding of actin and myosin filaments, shortening the sarcomere
11
Q
What happens to the I band during muscle contraction?
A
It becomes smaller as filaments overlap
12
Q
What is the role of ATP in muscle contraction?
A
Converts energy to generate force and initiate movement
13
Q
What is the smallest muscle in the body?
A
Stapedius, located in the ear, about 1 millimeter long
14
Q
What is the longest muscle in the body?
A
Sartorius, running from the front of the hip to the top of the tibia
15
Q
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
A
Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system
16
Q
What are the three key activities of the nervous system?
A
Sensory input, information integration, and motor output
17
Q
What are the main responsibilities of the nervous system?
A
Homeostasis, involuntary actions, perception, behavior, and movement
18
Q
What are multi-polar neurons? (and what is their main function?)
A
Neurons with two or more dendrites and a single axon, control skeletal muscles
19
Q
What characterizes bipolar neurons?
A
One dendrite and one axon, involved in special sensory functions
20
Q
What defines unipolar neurons?
A
Single dendrite merging into an axon, often found in sensory nerves
21
Q
What makes multipolar neurons unique?
A
No clear distinction between dendrites and axons, possibly for cross-communication
22
Q
What are astrocytes?
A
Most numerous neuroglia cells, support neurons, regulate neural environment, star-shaped and apart of the Syncytium system (multi-nuclei system). Maintains blood-brain barrier via endothelium, influencing their permeability.
23
Q
What is the primary function of oligodendrocytes?
A
Provide insulation to neurons in the central nervous system, protecting and maintaining myelin sheath. Which in turn insulates axons and promotes rapid electrical signal transmission
24
Q
What role do microglia play?
A
Act as macrophages, removing debris in the central nervous system
25
What do ependymal cells do?
Line brain and spinal cord ventricles, move and sample cerebrospinal fluid
26
What are Schwann cells?
Type of primary glial cell that provides insulation to axons in the peripheral nervous system, insulating and protecting nerve fibers (key compenent in regenerative recovery after injury) forms myelin sheath around axons
27
What are satellite cells?
Surrounds neuron bodies, supports fluid exchange (like how the astrocytes are in CNS) supports peripheral ganglia, modulate neuronal environment
28
What are the main parts of a neuron?
Dendrites, cell body, nucleus, and axon
29
How long can some neurons be?
Up to a meter or more in length
30
What is a Titin in the myofibril
An elastic protein that spans from the Z- disc to the M-line acting as a molecular spring
31
What band and zone in the sacomeres shrink when contracting muscle and which one remains unchanged?
H zone, I band and A band remains unchanged
32
Can you name all the parts of this neuron and what type it is?
Multipolar neuron: 2 or more dendrites and a single axon
33
Can you name all the parts of this neuron and what type it is?
Bipolar Neuron: One dendritic process(as one branches from the cell body) One axon, The cell body is between the axon and the dendrite
34
Can you name all the parts of this neuron and what type it is?
Unipolar Neuron: The dendrites and the axon are continuous, cell body off to the side (these are usually for sensory processes)
35
What type of neuron is this?
Anaxonic Neuron
36
Label this diagram with its cross sections of a myofibril
See image:
37
List the 6 levels of structural organisation from smallest to largest
1. Chemical Level, 2. Cellular Level, 3. Tissue Level, 4. Organ Level, 5. System Level, 6. Organism Level
38
What is the chemical level of structural organisation?
Combination of elements from the periodic table forming molecules and compounds; involves interactions of basic chemical elements to create proteins, lipids, and other essential biological molecules
39
What is the cellular level of structural organisation?
Aggregation of molecules into specific cell types; humans have approximately 200 different cell types, each with a unique form and function designed to perform specific physiological roles
40
What is the tissue level of structural organisation?
Groups of specific cells with similar functions, organised with extracellular matrix; comprises four basic tissue types: Epithelial, Muscle, Connective, Nervous
41
What is the organ level of structural organisation?
Different tissue types combining to perform specific functions; multiple tissue types work together to create a structure with a distinct physiological purpose (e.g., stomach combines epithelial, muscle, and connective tissues)
42
What is the system level of structural organisation?
Multiple organs working together to perform broader physiological functions; humans have 11 body systems that interact and support overall bodily functions
43
What is the organism level of structural organisation?
The complete, integrated living system where all structural levels work together harmoniously to maintain life, with all systems functioning interdependently
44
How are skeletal muscles categorised?
- Axial muscles: Central core muscles associated with thorax and neck, providing support and positioning of axial skeleton
- Appendicular muscles: Muscles of the limbs that support and move the limbs
45
What are the primary functions of skeletal muscles?
- Enable skeleton movement
- Control body entrances and exits
- Produce heat (e.g., shivering)
- Provide support
- Offer protection (e.g., abdominal wall protecting internal organs)
- Maintains posture
46
What are tendons and what is their primary function?
Relatively inflexible, fibrous, rope-like structures that connect muscles to bones, transmitting contractile force from muscles to bones (e.g., Achilles tendon)
47
What are aponeuroses?
Sheet-like, broad tendons that can connect:
- Muscle to muscle
- Occasionally muscle to bone
- Example: Abdominal muscles' aponeuroses in the six-pack region
48
What are the main components of the Skeletal System?
- Bones
- Joints
- Cartilage
- Ligaments
49
List the components of the Axial Skeleton
- Skull
- Vertebral column (including)
* Cervical vertebrae
* Thoracic vertebrae
* Lumbar vertebrae
* Sacrum
* Coccyx
- Sternum
- Ribs
- Supporting cartilages (e.g., chest cartilages that allow stretching)
## Footnote
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50
List the components of the Appendicular Skeleton
- Limb bones
- Supporting cartilages at joint interfaces
51
What are the main components of the Nervous System?
Central Nervous System (CNS):
- Brain
- Spinal Cord
- Special Senses (with exception of optic nerve for vision)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
- Peripheral Nerves
- Special Senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste)
52
What are the primary functions of the brain?
- Complex integrative activity
- Controls voluntary actions
- Controls involuntary activities
- Thinking
- Processing complex information
53
What are the primary functions of the spinal cord?
- Communication channel between brain and periphery
- Performs integrative activities
- Manages reflex arcs
- Can integrate simple responses without brain input
- Allows brain to override reflex responses
54
What is a reflex arc?
- Simple neural response integrated at spinal cord level
- Example: Pulling hand away from sharp/hot object
- Occurs before brain registers the stimulus
- Can be overridden by brain's conscious control
55
List the components of the Endocrine System
- Pineal gland
- Pituitary and hypothalamus complex
- Thyroid gland
- Parathyroid glands
- Thymus
- Adrenal glands
- Kidneys
- Pancreas (specifically Islets of Langerhans)
- Gonads (testes and ovaries)
56
What is the function of the pineal gland?
Controls diurnal rhythms
57
What are the key functions of the pituitary and hypothalamus?
- Master controller of other endocrine organs
- Regulates growth
- Involved in fluid balance
- Produces multiple hormones controlling other endocrine organs
58
What is the primary function of the thyroid gland?
Controls metabolic rate and the rate of chemical reactions in cells
59
What is the primary function of the parathyroid glands?
Secrete hormones involved in calcium control
60
What hormones do the adrenal glands produce and their specific functions?
- Aldosterone: Regulates water and mineral balance
- Cortisol: Manages tissue metabolism
- Adrenaline: Triggers fight or flight response
* Increases heart rate
* Redirects blood flow to muscles
* Prepares body for immediate action
- Erythropoietin: Stimulates red blood cell production in bone marrow
* Increases oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
* Can be artificially used to enhance athletic performance
61
What is growth hormone and how does it function?
- Produced by the pituitary gland
- Stimulates liver to produce insulin-like growth factor
- Promotes tissue growth
- Primarily active during childhood and adolescence
62
What is gigantism?
- Occurs when excessive growth hormone is produced during childhood
- Results in abnormally increased height
63
What is acromegaly?
- Occurs when excess growth hormone is produced in adults after growth plates have closed
- Characteristics:
* Coarsening of facial features
* Thickening of tissues
* Enlarged hands and feet
* Caused by pituitary tumors
- Can be treated by removing the tumor through nasal surgery
64
What are the components of the Lymphatic System and their primary functions?
- Lymphatic vessels: Collect and transport excess fluid from tissues back to circulatory system
- Lymphatic fluid: Carries immune cells and removes waste from tissues
- Lymph nodes: Filter lymph, detect infections, release white blood cells
- Spleen:
* Removes damaged red blood cells
* Produces white blood cells
* Filters blood
- Thymus:
* Matures lymphocytes (white blood cells)
* Most active during childhood
* Produces T cells
65
What are the primary functions of the Lymphatic System?
- Collect extra fluid from body tissues
- Return excess fluid to circulatory system
- Filter lymph
- Support immune response
- Collect fat from digestive system
66
What is the function of lymph nodes?
- Act as sentinels screening lymph
- Detect bacteria and foreign body signatures
- Expand when infection is present
- Release white blood cells to attack infections
- Example: Swelling in groin when toe is infected
67
What are B and T cells and their roles?
B Cells:
- Produce antibodies
- Part of humoral (bodily fluids) immune response
T Cells:
- Cell-mediated immune response
- Mature in the thymus
- Help regulate immune system
- Directly attack infected or abnormal cells
68
What is oedema and what causes it?
- Swelling caused by fluid accumulation
- Occurs when lymphatic system fails to return fluid to circulatory system
- Characterized by:
* Tissue swelling
* Ability to leave indentation when pressing on affected area
* Fluid-filled tissues (not fat)
69
What are the main components of the Cardiovascular System?
- Heart
- Blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins)
- Blood
70
What are the primary functions of blood?
- Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
- Carry nutrients (glucose)
- Transport hormones
- Remove waste products
- Temperature regulation
- Carry immune cells
- Maintain acid-base balance
71
Describe the differences between arteries and veins
Arteries:
- Thick, muscular walls
- Carry oxygenated blood from heart to tissues
Veins:
- Thinner walls
- Carry deoxygenated blood back to heart
72
What is the role of capillaries in the cardiovascular system?
- Smallest blood vessels
- Allow fluid to percolate through tissues
- Site of nutrient and gas exchange between blood and body tissues
73
What are the components of the Respiratory System?
- Nasal cavity
- Sinuses
- Pharynx
- Larynx
- Trachea
- Bronchioles
- Lungs
- Diaphragm
74
What are the primary functions of the Respiratory System?
- Gas exchange
- Humidify and warm air
- Acid-base balance regulation
- Protect respiratory tract
75
Describe the path of air through the respiratory system
1. Nasal cavity/sinuses (moistens air)
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx (voice box, protects trachea)
4. Trachea
5. Bronchi
6. Lungs (site of gas exchange)
7. Bronchioles
8. Alveoli
76
What is the role of the diaphragm in respiration?
- Moves to create air movement in and out of lungs
- Enables breathing by changing thoracic cavity pressure
- Helps in air intake and expulsion
77
What is the pharynx and what are its functions?
- Conducts air
- Shared pathway for air and food
- Connects nasal cavity to larynx
- Part of both respiratory and digestive systems
78
What is the larynx and what are its functions?
- Voice box
- Protects opening of trachea
- Produces speech sounds
- Prevents food from entering respiratory tract
79
What is the trachea and what are its functions?
- Windpipe
- Conducts air from larynx to bronchi
- Provides clear airway to lungs
- Helps direct air into respiratory system
80
What are bronchi and bronchioles, and what are their functions?
Bronchi:
- Branches of trachea
- Divide into smaller airways
- Conduct air to and from lungs
Bronchioles:
- Smallest branches of airways
- Lead directly to alveoli
- Site of final air distribution before gas exchange
81
What are the components of the Digestive System?
- Oral cavity
- Salivary glands
- Pharynx
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small intestine
- Liver (produces bile, good for digesting fats)
- Gallbladder (stores bile)
- Pancreas (produces digestive enzymes)
- Large intestine
82
What are the functions of the oral cavity and salivary glands?
- Break down food
- Add lubricating fluids
- Begin initial food breakdown
- Prepare food for swallowing
83
What is the function of the esophagus?
- Muscular, contracting tube
- Transports food from mouth to stomach
- Moves food through peristalsis
84
What are the functions of the stomach?
- Contracts and moves food
- Secretes acid
- Produces hormones to control digestive system
- Begins chemical breakdown of food
85
What is the role of the liver and bile? (where is it stored and where + when is it released?)
- Liver produces bile
- Bile acts like a detergent
- Breaks down fats
- Stored in gallbladder
- Released into intestine during meals
86
What is the pancreas's role in digestion?
- Produces digestive enzymes
- Breaks down:
* Fats
* Proteins
* DNA
* Carbohydrates
87
What are the functions of the large intestine?
- Stores waste
- Recovers water
- Final stage of digestive process
88
What are the components of the Urinary System?
- Kidneys
- Ureters
- Bladder
- Urethra
89
What are the primary functions of the kidneys?
- Filter waste from blood
- Form urine
- Regulate pH
- Control blood volume and blood pressure
- Assist in red blood cell development (via erythropoietin)
90
What are ureters and their function?
- Muscular, contractile pipes
- Collect urine from kidneys
- Push urine from kidneys to bladder
91
What are the functions of the bladder and urethra?
Bladder:
- Stores urine
- Holds urine until appropriate time for release
Urethra:
- Allows urine to exit the body
92
What organ produces erythropoietin and what is its function?
- Produced by the kidneys
- Stimulates red blood cell production in bone marrow
- Increases oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
- Historically exploited in athletic performance enhancement
93
In which body systems do the kidneys play a role?
- Urinary System (primary system)
- Endocrine System (hormone production)
* Produces erythropoietin
* Involved in blood pressure regulation
* Contributes to calcium level control
94
What are the components of the Male Reproductive System?
- Testes
- Accessory organs for sperm maturation
- Structures for adding seminal fluid
- External genitalia
95
What are the components of the Female Reproductive System?
- Ovaries
- Uterine tubes
- Uterus
- External genitalia
- Mammary glands
96
What dual role do the reproductive organs play in the body systems?
- Reproductive System: Reproduction and sexual characteristics
- Endocrine System: Produce hormones (gonads)
97
What unique characteristic do mammary glands have?
- Modified sweat glands
- Part of both Reproductive and Integumentary Systems
98
What hormones do gonads produce in males and females?
Male Gonads (Testes):
- Testosterone
- Produces male sexual characteristics
- Supports sperm production
- Regulates male reproductive function
Female Gonads (Ovaries):
- Estrogen
- Progesterone
- Regulate female sexual characteristics
- Support menstrual cycle
- Influence reproductive function
99
What is Epithelial Tissue and what are its functions?
- Tissue covering body surfaces
- Lines hollow organs
- Forms glands
- Interfaces between body and external environment
- Functions:
1. Selective barrier
2. Secretory
3. Protective against abrasion
4. Controls what enters/exits the body
100
What are Cell Junctions and what are their functions?
- Structures that connect epithelial cells
- Types of junctions:
1. Tight Junctions
2. Adherens Junctions
3. Desmosomes
4. Gap Junctions
5. Hemidesmosomes
- Functions:
- Maintain tissue structure
- Allow cell communication
- Provide mechanical strength
- Control molecular passage between cells
101
What is a Tight Junction and what are its functions?
- Located near cell's apical surface
- Creates a seal between cells
- Prevents molecules from passing between cells
- Key proteins: Claudins and occludens
- Functions:
- Maintain cell polarity
- Prevent uncontrolled molecular movement
- Create electrical barrier
- Control cell environment
102
What is an Adherens Junction and what are its functions?
- Forms belt-like structure around cell
- Proteins: Cadherin spans between cells
- Linked to catenin protein
- Connects to actin cytoskeleton
- Functions:
- Resist tension between cells
- Provide structural integrity
- Link cell skeletons
- Maintain tissue cohesion
103
What is a Desmosome and what are its functions?
- Button-like points of contact between cells
- Uses cadherin proteins to span the gap
- Linked to desmoplaken protein
- Connected to keratin (intermediate filaments)
- Functions:
- Provide mechanical strength
- Resist mechanical stress
- Maintain tissue integrity
- Allow cells to withstand tension
104
What is a Gap Junction and what are its functions?
- Composed of six connexin proteins
- Form "pizza-like" structures called connexons
- Located between cell membranes
- Functions:
- Allow communication between cells
- Transfer small molecules (up to 1 kilodalton)
- Conduct electrical signals
- Coordinate cellular activities
- Critical in tissues like heart muscle
105
What is a Hemidesmosome and what are its functions?
- Anchor cells to basement membrane
- Located at the bottom of the cell
- Use integrin proteins to bind
- Connect to laminin in basement membrane
- Functions:
- Prevent cells from sliding
- Provide structural stability
- Attach epithelial cells to underlying tissue
- Maintain tissue organization
106
What is the Basement Membrane and what are its functions?
- Located at bottom of epithelial tissue
- Composed of two layers:
1. Basal lamina (made by epithelial cells)
2. Reticular lamina (made by connective tissue cells)
- Functions:
- Supports epithelial cells
- Allows nutrient diffusion
- Aids in wound healing
- Provides structural foundation
- Facilitates cell migration
107
What are Epithelial Cell Arrangements and what are their functions? (3 types)
- Simple: Single layer of cells
- Allows easy diffusion
- Minimal barrier resistance
- Stratified: Multiple layers of cells
- Provides mechanical protection
- Resists mechanical stress
- Pseudostratified: Appears layered, all cells touch basement membrane
- Allows specialized functions
- Maintains structural integrity
108
What are Epithelial Cell Shapes and what are their characteristics?
- Squamous: Flat and thin
- Facilitates diffusion
- Found in filtration areas
- Cuboidal: Equal width and height
- Supports secretion and absorption
- Active metabolic functions
- Columnar: Tall, rectangular
- Increases surface area
- Supports absorption and secretion
- Transitional: Can change shape
- Allows volume changes
- Found in bladder
109
What are Membrane Modifications and what are their functions?
- Microvilli:
- Small projections
- Increases surface area
- Found in intestines
- Enhances absorption
- Cilia:
- Larger, moving projections
- Move materials
- Found in respiratory tract
- Clear mucus and debris
- Create mucociliary elevator
110
What are Glandular Epithelia and what are their types?
- Endocrine Glands:
- Secrete directly into bloodstream
- Hormones travel throughout body
- Examples: Thyroid, Pituitary
- Long-distance signaling
- Exocrine Glands:
- Secrete through ducts
- Release onto surface or into cavity
- Examples: Sweat glands, Pancreas
- Local effect
111
What is a Goblet Cell and what are its functions?
- Modified columnar cell
- Single-cell exocrine gland
- Produces and secretes mucus
- Located in:
- Intestinal lining
- Respiratory tract
- Functions:
- Lubrication
- Trap particles
- Facilitate movement of materials
112
What is Simple Squamous Epithelium and what are its functions? (Subtypes)
- Single layer of flat, thin cells
- Specialized subtypes:
1. Mesothelium (Serosa):
- Lines body cavities
- Covers internal organs
2. Endothelium:
- Lines blood vessels
- Lines inside of heart
- Functions:
- Filtration in kidneys
- Gas exchange in lungs
- Lubrication
- Minimal barrier resistance
113
What is Simple Columnar Epithelium and what are its characteristics?
- Tall, rectangular cells
- Nucleus:
- Located near base of cell
- Smaller relative to large cytoplasm
- Cytoplasm:
- Large volume
- Contains organelles for secretion and absorption
- Two subtypes:
1. Non-Ciliated: Contains microvilli
2. Ciliated: Has moving cilia
- Functions:
- Absorption
- Secretion
- Movement of materials
114
What are Cilia and what is their function in Epithelial Tissues?
- Hair-like projections
- Larger than microvilli
- Can move in coordinated, wave-like motion
- Functions:
1. Move materials along surface
2. Clear mucus and debris
3. Found in respiratory tract
4. Present in fallopian tubes to move egg
5. Create mucociliary elevator
115
How does Stratified Squamous Epithelium provide protection?
Keratinized (Skin):
- Multiple cell layers
- Top layer contains keratin
- Protects against dry trauma
- Provides mechanical defense
Non-Keratinized (Mouth/Throat):
- Multiple cell layers
- No keratin layer
- Protects moist surfaces
- Resists mechanical stress
116
True or False: Simple Columnar Epithelium can have Cilia or Microvilli?
- True
- Can have:
1. Microvilli (for absorption)
2. Cilia (for moving materials)
3. Goblet cells (for mucus production)
117
Fill in the blank: A Goblet cell is a modified _____ cell?
- Columnar cell
118
True or False: When describing stratified epithelial tissue, we describe the cell shape by the layers closest to the basement membrane?
- False
- We describe the tissue by the appearance of the top layer
119
Which Pseudostratified Epithelial Tissue has Goblet Cells?
- Ciliated Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
- Found in respiratory tract (like trachea)
120
Is a Goblet Cell an Exocrine or Endocrine Gland?
- Exocrine Gland
- Specifically, a single-cell exocrine gland
- Secretes mucus directly onto a surface
- Found in:
1. Intestinal lining
2. Respiratory tract
- Produces and releases mucus locally
121
What are ligaments?
Ligaments are bands of tissue that help hold bones, joints and organs in place
122
What are the different vertebrae in the vertebrae column?
A:
123
What is the basic formula for connective tissue?
Extracellular Matrix (ECM) + Cells
124
What are the three main functions of connective tissue?
1. Bind and support other tissues
2. Transport mechanism
3. Energy storage site
125
What are the two main components of ECM?
Ground Substance + Fibers
126
What are the three types of protein fibers in connective tissue?
1. Collagen fibers (strong, thick)
2. Reticular fibers (thin, structural support)
3. Elastic fibers (stretchable, returns to shape)
127
Name two common connective tissue cells
1. Fibroblasts (produce ECM)
2. Adipocytes (store fat)
128
What are the similarities between connective tissue and epithelia?
- Both are basic tissue types
- Both are well-supplied by nerves
129
What are the key differences between connective tissue and epithelia?
- Connective tissue is NOT found on body surfaces
- Epithelia have no blood vessels
- Connective tissue can be highly vascular
- Different primary functions (support vs covering)
130
What are the three main components of ground substance?
- Polysaccharides (Glycosaminoglycans)
- Water
- Proteins
131
What do Glycosaminoglycans join with core proteins to form?
Proteoglycans
132
Describe the structural characteristics of Glycosaminoglycans
Long, unbranched polysaccharides
133
List Sulphated types of Glycosaminoglycans
- Dermatan sulfate
- Heparin
- Keratin sulfate
- Chondroitin sulfate
134
What is the primary Non-sulphated Glycosaminoglycan?
Hyaluronic acid
135
What are the key structural characteristics of Hyaluronic Acid?
- Unique glycosaminoglycan without protein core
- Acts as a backbone for proteoglycans
- Highly polar and hydrophilic
- Can trap and hold water molecules, making substance more jelly-like
136
What are the main functional applications of Hyaluronic Acid?
- Lubricates joints
- Maintains shape of eyeball
- Combines cells together in extracellular matrix
- Creates slippery, gel-like environment
137
What is the role of Hyaluronidase Enzyme and what processes does it enable?
- Dissolves hyaluronic acid
- Allows (produced by all these cells):
- White blood cells to migrate through tissue
- Sperm to find egg
- Bacteria to establish infections
- Makes ground substance more liquid
138
Where are specific Glycosaminoglycans found in the body?
- Chondroitin Sulphate: Cartilage, bone, skin, blood vessels
- Keratan Sulphate: Cornea, cartilage
- Dermatan Sulphate: Skin, tendons, blood vessels, heart valves
139
What is Exophthalmos and how does it relate to ECM abnormality?
- Autoimmune thyroid disease
- Increased glycosaminoglycans in orbital area
- Causes:
- Muscle thickening
- Increased ground substance
- Eye protrusion due to swelling of thyroid gland
- Altered extracellular matrix composition, (swelling of fibroblasts in ECM of eye)
140
What are the key characteristics and functions of Collagen Fibers?
- Location: Bone, cartilage, tendons
- Structure: Strong, thick protein fibers
- Composition: 25% of body's total protein
- Function:
- Provide structural support
- Increase tissue strength
- Connect and reinforce tissues
141
What are Reticular Fibres and where are they found?
Thin collagen fibres with glycoprotein coating, found in adipose tissue, around nerves, and in smooth muscles
142
Who produces Reticular Fibres and what is their primary function?
Produced by fibroblasts; provide structural support and tissue framework
143
What are Elastic Fibres composed of?
Elastin protein with fibulin glycoprotein coating
144
In which body tissues are Elastic Fibres critical?
Lungs and blood vessels
145
What genetic defect causes Marfan Syndrome?
Defect in fibrillin gene on chromosome 15
146
List three key symptoms of Marfan Syndrome
- Tall, thin body
- Long fingers and limbs
- Potential heart valve weakness
147
Describe the location and function of Fibroblasts
- Widely distributed in body
- Secrete extracellular matrix proteins
- Aid in healing
- Produce basement membrane
- Can migrate
148
What are the key characteristics of Adipocytes?
- Located under skin and around organs
- Large fat storage vacuoles
- Store fat
- Provide body insulation
- Nucleus pushed to side of cell
149
What are the primary functions of Macrophages?
- Phagocytic cells
- Move through tissues
- Fight infection
- Can specialize in different organs
150
Describe the origin and function of Plasma Cells
- Originate from B lymphocytes
- Found in gut, lungs, liver, lymph nodes
- Produce antibodies
151
What is the primary role of Mast Cells?
- Release histamine
- Increase blood vessel permeability
- Cause inflammatory responses
## Footnote
Example: Cause swelling in insect bites
152
What is the primary function of White Blood Cells in connective tissue?
Provide immune defense and response by migrating from blood into tissue
153
What are the two classifications of connective tissue?
Embryonic Connective Tissue, Mature Connective Tissue
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What are the two subtypes of Embryonic connective tissue?
Mesenchyme, Mucous connective tissue
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Describe the structure, location, and function of Mesenchyme (embryonic) connective tissue?
Found in embryos. Structure: Mesenchyme cells in semi-fluid ground substance, thin reticular fibers. Function: Gives rise to all other connective tissues, provides structural support during embryonic development.
156
What is the structure, location, and function of Mucous connective tissue?
Location: Exclusively in the umbilical cord of the fetus. Structure: Widely scattered fibroblast cells embedded in jelly-like ground substance. Function: Supports blood vessels in the umbilical cord, provides cushioning and protection.
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What are the two classifications of mature connective tissues?
Loose Connective Tissue, Dense Connective Tissue
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Describe the structure, location, and function of Areolar connective tissue and what are brown vs. white adipose?
Location: Beneath skin, around organs. Structure: Adipocytes dominant, few fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular), contains various cell types (macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells). Function: Supports and cushions other tissues, allows diffusion of nutrients, insulation, temperature control. White adipose= energy storage, Brown adipose= heat production.
159
What is the structure/location/function of dense regular connective tissue?
Dense regular connective tissue is characterized by closely packed, parallel collagen fibers. It is typically found in tendons and ligaments, its structure ensures that it can withstand great tensile force.
160
What is the structure/location/function of dense irregular connective tissue?
The structure of dense irregular tissue is dense but random arrangement of collagen fibres. It is typically found in areas that withstand stress from multiple directions.
161
What is the structure/location/function of dense elastic connective tissue?
A fiber produced by fibroblasts and surrounded by collagen arranged in tight parallel rows and are stretchy. Found in the lungs and in the walls of arteries.
162
What are the classifications of supporting connective tissue?
Cartilage and Bone
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What are the subtypes of cartilage connective tissue?
Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage
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What is the structure/location/function of Hyaline cartilage connective tissue?
Composed of a ground substance filled with collagen and proteoglycans, giving it a flexible, glassy appearance. Found in areas such as the nose, trachea, larynx, and the ends of long bones.
165
What is the structure/location/function of Elastic cartilage connective tissue?
Has a firm but flexible matrix filled with a high proportion of elastic fibres. Found in the external ear and epiglottis.
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What is the structure/location/function of Fibrocartilage connective tissue?
Structure: Dense and tough, with a high proportion of collagen fibers interwoven with cartilage cells. Location: Predominantly found in areas of high stress such as intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and the menisci of the knee.
167
What is the structure/location/function of COMPACT Bone/osseous connective tissue?
Compact bone is a subtype of bone that is part of the outer layer of bone forming the shaft of long bones. Composed of many rod-shaped units known as Osteons/Haversian Systems.
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What is the structure/location/function of SPONGY Bone/osseous connective tissue?
It is a porous inner bone tissue, an irregular network of thin columns. It is underneath the compact bone and lacks osteons.
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What are the two classifications of bone tissue?
Compact (Cortical) and Spongy
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What are the four cell types found in bone?
Osteogenic, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes, Osteoclasts
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What is the role of Osteogenic cells in bone repair?
They are mesenchymal stem cells that begin to lay down collagen trapping themselves and now turning into osteoblasts.
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What is the role of Osteoblasts in bone repair?
They are the bone-forming cells; they lay down more collagen starting the mineralisation process.
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What is the role of Osteocytes in bone repair?
They are a mature bone cell derived from osteoblasts that are trapped within the extracellular matrix.
174
What is the role of Osteoclasts in bone repair?
Osteoclasts are large multinucleate cells from the fusion of blood monocytes, their role is to break down bone.
175
The basic unit of compact bone is the osteon (Haversian systems), what are its four main parts?
Lamellae, Lacunae, Canaliculi, and Central (Haversian) canal
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What is Lamellae and what is its structure/location/function?
It is in the osteon of bone, its structure is concentric rings of calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide for hardness.
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What is Lacunae and what is its structure/location/function?
It is in the osteon of bone in the small spaces between lamellae, contains mature bone cells (aka osteocytes).
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What is Canaliculi and what is its structure/location/function?
The minute canals that contain extracellular fluid from osteocytic processes, radiate from lacunae.
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What is Central (Haversian) canal?
Contains blood, lymph, and nerves.
180
What are the two types of liquid connective tissues?
Blood and Lymph
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What is the structure/location/function of Blood liquid connective tissue?
Consists of blood plasma (liquid ECM), and formed elements (red cells, white cells, and platelets).
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What are the three main types of formed elements in blood and the different types of Leukocytes?
Erythrocytes, Leukocytes and Platelets. Types of Leukocytes: Neutrophils, Basophils, Eosinophils and Lymphocytes.
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What are Neutrophils as a Leukocyte?
The first responders to infection, phagocytic and engulfs bacteria.
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What is Basophils as a Leukocyte?
Mobile cells that release substances such as histamine that can intensify inflammatory reactions.
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What is Eosinophils as a Leukocyte?
Are effective against certain parasitic worms and in acute allergic response.
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What is Lymphocytes as a Leukocyte?
They are involved in the immune response.
187
What are Erythrocytes?
Also known as Red blood cells, they transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
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What are Platelets?
From megakaryocytes in red marrow; clotting.
189
Epithelia contain nerves but do not contain (blank):
Blood vessels, they are avascular
190
Label these types of epithelial tissue:
A:
191
What is glucagon and glycogen?
Glucagon and glycogen are both crucial in regulating blood glucose levels, but they play opposite roles. Glycogen is the stored form of glucose, primarily in the liver and muscles. Glucagon is a hormone that triggers the liver to break down glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream. This process is called glycogenolysis, and it helps raise blood glucose levels when they are low.
