Module 4

Question 1

Describe the linear view of science

Answer 1

the dominant view presented science as a steady march toward truth, where new discoveries seamlessly build upon old knowledge

Question 2

Describe the Progressive Narrative of science

Answer 2

scientific advantages were portrayed as leading humanity toward a more advanced, rational, and technologically superior future

Question 3

Describe the Western and Soviet perspectives on science

Answer 3

WESTERN PERSPECTIVE
science framed as an objective, self-correcting endeavor, immune to ideology, and a testament to the superiority of democratic, capitalist societies

SOVIET PERSPECTIVE
science was depicted as the driving force of Marxist-Leninist progress, advancing socialist ideas and proving the superiority of state-controlled research over capitalist competition

Question 4

Describe Kuhn’s view of science

Answer 4

Kuhn discovered that science was better defined by a pattern of radical shifts rather than a steady progress

instead of refined over time, science is characterized by entire worldviews being replaced by a radical shift

Question 5

State the Quine-Duhem Thesis

Answer 5

The empirical content of a scientific hypothesis are never tested in isolation, because any test of the hypothesis relies on a network of auxiliary assumptions.
When an experiment contradicts expectations, we can attribute the failure to the hypothesis itself, to one of the auxiliary assumptions, or to an error in observation or experimental setup.

Question 6

Describe the problem of Underdetermination

Answer 6

Underdetermination:

the idea that for any given set of empirical data, multiple scientific theories can explain the observation equally well

PROBLEM
it challenges the assumption that scientific theories converge toward an ultimate truth through empirical testing
(if multiple theories can account for the same observations, shifts in scientific thinking may be influenced by external factors rather than pure empirical reasoning)

Question 7

Describe the Quine-Duhem Pivot

Answer 7

!! if theories are not simply falsified but resist falsification until a major shift occurs, then scientific change is more about paradigm shifts than constant testing !!

Paradigm Protection:
scientific communities often modify their theories to fit anomalies delaying a shift until the crisis is too large to ignore. Science does not adjust theories, it undergoes revolutions where entire worldviews shift

Question 8

State and describe the 6 concepts introduced by Kuhn

Answer 8

1. PARADIGMS
   an entire worldview that defines what counts as legitimate science, including:
   - key theories and assumptions
   - accepted methodologies
   - standardized tools and instruments
   - fundamental concepts and definitions
2. NORMAL SCIENCE
   scientists do not seek to overthrow the paradigm, they work to refine it.
   !! normal science is conservative. it works within a paradigm rather than questioning it !!
3. EXEMPLARS
   an exemplar is a concrete example of how to do science within a paradigm
   !! science education is not just about learning facts, it’s about learning how to think within a paradigm !!
4. ANOMALIES
   an observation or experimentatal result that contradicts expectations within a paradigm
   !! when anomalies become too frequent and unresolvable scientists begin questioning the paradigm itself !!
5. SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
   it occurs when an old paradigm is replaced by a new one
   !! science does not progress linearly, it undergoes revolutionary shifts in worldview !!
6. INCOMMENSURABILITY
   competing paradigms use different concepts, methodologies, and assumptions, making them difficult to compare directly
   !! science is not purely rational, it is shaped by history, culture, and community dynamics !!

Question 9

Define Social Epistemology

Answer 9

science is not a purely individual pursuit; it is a collective activity where critique and collaboration define what counts as evidence.

Longino:
“data doesn’t speak for themselves” They are interpreted through theoretical lenses and social assumptions”

Question 10

What are Longino’s 4 criteria for objectivity?

Answer 10

1. PUBLICLY RECOGNIZED FORUMS FOR CRITICISM
   - open venues where work can be scrutinized
   - transparency ensures claims are exposed to challenges from various perspective
2. SHARED STANDARDS OF EVALUATION
   - criteria for judging theories must be agreed upon by the community
   - standards must not be so narrow as to exclude any viewpoint
3. COMMUNITY-WIDE UPTAKE OF CRITICISM
   - criticisms must be taken seriously and lead to potential revisions in theory
4. EQUALITY OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
   - no single group should monopolize credibility
   - diverse participation broadens the pool of assumptions, reducing th risk of systematic bias