Module 4-7 Flashcards
social stratification
the existence of structured inequalities among groups in society in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards
slavery
a form of social stratification in which some people are owned by others as their property
caste system
a social system in which one’s social status is determined at birth and set for life
endogamy
the forbidding of marriage or sexual relations outside of one’s social group
class
although it is one of the most frequently used concepts in sociology, there is no clear agreement about how the term should be defined. Most sociologists use the term to refer to socioeconomic variations among groups of individuals that create variations in their material prosperity and power
life chances
a term introduced by Max Weber to signify a person’s opportunities for achieving economic prosperity
means of production
the means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology but the social relations among producers
bourgeoise
people who own companies, land, or stocks (shares) and use these to generate economic returns according to Marx
proletariat
people who sell their labor for wages, according to Marx
surplus value
in Marxist theory, the value of a worker’s labor power left over when an employer has repaid the cost of hiring the worker
status
The social honor or prestige that a particular group is accorded by other members of a society. Status groups normally display distinct styles of life—patterns of behavior that the members of a group follow. Status privilege may be positive or negative
pariah group
groups that suffer from negative status discrimination - they are looked down on by most other members of society
power
the ability of individuals or the members of a group to achieve aims or further the interests they hold. Power is a pervasive element in all human relationships. Many conflicts in society are struggles over power, because how much power an individual or group is able to obtain governs how far they are able to put their wishes into practice
contradictory class locations
positions in the class structure, particularly routine white collar, and lower managerial jobs, that share characteristics with the class positions both above and below them
income
payment, usually derived from wages, salaries, or investments
wealth
money and material possessions held by an individual or group
upper class
a social class broadly composed of the more affluent members of society, especially those who have inherited wealth, own businesses, or hold large numbers of stocks
middle class
a social class composed broadly of those working in white-collar and highly skilled blue-collar jobs
working class
a social class broadly composed of people working in blue collar or manual occupations
blue and pink collar jobs
jobs that typically pay low wages and often involve manual or low-skill labor. Blue-collar jobs typically are held by men (e.g. factory workers) whereas pink-collar jobs are typically held by women (e.g. clerical assistant)
lower class
a social class composed of those who work part-time or not at all and whose household income is typically low
social mobility
upward or downward movement of individuals or groups among different social positions
intragenerational mobility
movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career
intergenerational mobility
change in social class between generations
social reproduction
the process whereby societies have structural continuity over time. Social reproduction is an important pathway through which parents transmit or produce values, norms, and social practices among their children
cultural capital
noneconomic or cultural resources that parents pass down to their children, such as language or knowledge. These resources contribute to the process of social reproduction, according to Bourdieu
downward mobility
social mobility in which individuals’ wealth, income, or status is lower than what they or their parents once had
short-range downward mobility
social mobility that occurs when an individual moves from one position in the class structure to another of neatly equal status
absolute poverty
the minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence
relative poverty
poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority of an given society
poverty line
a family-income level based on a no-frills budget that should suffice to cover all necessary expenses
working poor
people who work but whose earnings are not enough to lift them above the poverty line
feminization of poverty
an increase in the proportion of the poor who are female
social security
a government program that provides economic assistance to persons faced with unemployment, disability, or old age
medicare
a program under the US Social Security Administration that reimburses hospitals and physicians for medical care provided to qualifying people over sixty-five years old
culture of poverty
a thesis popularized by Oscar Lewis, that poverty is not the result of individual inadequacies but is instead the outcome of a larger social and cultural atmosphere into which successive generations of children are socialized. The culture of poverty refers to the values, beliefs, lifestyles, habits, and traditions that are common among people living under conditions of material deprivation
dependency culture
a term popularized by Charles Murray to describe individuals who rely on state welfare provision rather than entering the labor market. The dependency culture is seen as the outcome of the “paternalistic” welfare state that undermines individual ambition and people’s capacity for self-help
social exclusion
the outcome of multiple deprivations that prevent individuals or groups from participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live
agency
the ability to think, act, and make choices independently
homeless
people who have no place to sleep and either stay in free shelters or sleep in public spaces not meant for habitation
globalization
connectivity between local and global outcomes and processes
global inequality
the systematic differences in wealth and power among countries that have resulted from globalization
emerging economies
developing countries that, over the past two or three decades, have begun to develop a strong industrial base, such as Singapore and Hong Kong
neoliberalism
the belief that the best possible economic consequences will result if individuals and businesses—consumers and producers—are entirely free, uninhibited by any form of governmental constraint, to make their own economic decisions in a free market.
modernization theory
a version of market-oriented development theory that argues that low-income societies develop economically only if they give up their traditional ways and adopt modern economic institutions, technologies, and cultural values that emphasize savings and productive investment
dependency theory
marxist theories of economic development arguing that the poverty of low-income countries stems directly from their exploitation by wealthy countries and the multinational corporations that are based in wealthy countries
core countries
According to dependency theory, the most advanced industrial countries are best understood as being core within the world economy, in that they extract the lion’s share of profits from weaker countries
periphery
the low-income, largely agricultural countries. countries that have a marginal role in the world economy and are thus dependent on the core producing societies for their trading relationships
colonialism
the process whereby Western nations established their rule in parts of the world away from their home territories
dependent development
that under certain circumstances, dependent countries can still develop economically, although only in ways shaped by their reliance on wealthier countries
global commodity chains
worldwide networks of labor and production processes yielding a finished product
semi periphery countries
countries that supply sources of labor and raw materials to the core industrial countries and the world economy but are not themselves fully industrialized societies
world-systems theory
sees the world capitalist economic system not merely as a collection of independent countries engaged in diplomatic and economic relations with one another, but rather as a single economic unit
theory of global capitalism
the current transnational phase of capitalism, characterized by global markets, production, and finances; a transnational capitalist class whose business concerns are global rather than national; and transnational systems of governance (such as the World Trade Organization) that promote global business interests
transnational capitalist class
a social class whose economic interests are global rather than national, who share a globalized perspective and similar lifestyle and who see themselves as cosmopolitan citizens of the world
homeschooling
the practice of parents or guardians educating their children at home, for religious, philosophical, or safety reasons
literacy
the ability to read and write
tracking
dividing students into groups that receive different instruction based on perceived similarities in ability
hidden curriculum
traits of behavior or attitudes that are learned at the school but not included within the formal curriculum, for example, gender differences
IQ
a score attained on tests of symbolic or reasoning abilities
functional literacy
having reading and writing skills that are beyond a basic level and are sufficient to manage one’s everyday activities and employment tasks
standardized testing
a procedure whereby all students in a state take the same test under the same conditions
religion
a set of beliefs adhered to by the members of a community, incorporating symbols regarded with a sense of awe or wonder together with ritual practices. Religions do not universally involve a belief in supernatural entities
theism
a belief in one or more supernatural dieties
alienation
the sense that our own abilities as human beings are taken over by other entities. The term was originally used by Karl Marx to refer to the projection of human powers into gods. Subsequently, he used the term to refer to the loss of workers’ control over the nature and products of their labor
sacred
that which inspires awe or reverence among those who believe in a given set of religious ideas
profane
that which belongs to the mundane, everyday world
secular thinking
worldly thinking, particularly as seen in the rise of science, technology, and rational thought in general
secularization
a process of decline in the influence of religion. Secularization can refer to levels of involvement with religious organizations (such as rates of church attendance), the social and material influence wielded by religious organizations, and the degree to which people hold religious beliefs
religious economy
a theoretical framework within the sociology of religion that argues that religions can be fruitfully understood as organizations in competition with one another for follower
churches
are large, established religious bodies
sect
is typically described as a religious subgroup that breaks away from the larger organization and consequently follows its own unique set of rules and principles
denomination
is a sect that has cooled down and become an institutionalized body rather than an activist protest group
cult
are the most loosely knit and transient of all religious organizations. They are composed of individuals who reject what they see as the values of the outside society
religious nationalism
the linking of strongly held religious convictions with beliefs about a people’s social and political destiny
intersectionality
a sociological perspective that holds that our multiple group memberships affect our lives in ways that are distinct from a single group membership. For example, the experience of a black female may be distinct from that of a white female or black male
gender
social expectations about behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex. Gender refers not to the physical attributes distinguishing men and women but to socially formed traits of masculinity and femininity
gender binary
the classification of sex and gender into two discrete, opposite, and nonoverlapping forms of masculine and feminine
nonbinary
a gender identity that does not fit squarely into the male-female gender binary classification
gender socialization
the learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, peers, the media, and family
social construction of gender
a perspective holding that gender differences are a product of social and cultural norms and expectations rather than biology
hegemonic masculinity
social norms dictating that men should be strong, self-reliant, and unemotional
transgender
a person who identifies as or expresses a gender identity that differs from their sex at birth. Transgender persons differ from nonbinary persons who may have a fluid identity that shifts between male and female or who may identify as neither male nor female
cisgender
refers to a person whose gender identity matches their biological sex, for example, a person born male who identifies as a man
intersex
an individual possessing both male and female genitalia. Although statistically rare, this subpopulation is of great interest to gender scholars
patriarchy
the dominance of and privilege afforded to men over women. All known societies are patriarchal, although there are variations in the degree and nature of the power men exercise and are bestowed relative to women
gender inequality
the inequality between men and women in terms of wealth, income, and status
gender typing
designation of occupations as male or female, with “women’s” occupations, such as secretarial and retail positions, having lower status and pay and “men’s” occupations, such as managerial and professional positions, having higher status and pay
sex segregation
the concentration of men and women in different jobs. These differences are believed to contribute to the gender pay gap
glass ceiling
a promotion barrier that prevents a woman’s upward mobility within an organization
sexual harassment
the making of unwanted sexual advances by one individual toward another, in which the first person persists even though it is clear that the other party is resistant
second shift
the excessive work hours borne by women relative to men; these hours are typically spent on domestic chores following the end of a day of work outside the home
housework
unpaid work carried on in the home, usually by women; domestic chores such as cooking, cleaning, and shopping. Also called “domestic labor”
infanticide
the intentional killing of a newborn. Female babies are more likely than male babies to be murdered in cultures that devalue women
rape
the forcing of nonconsensual vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse
rape culture
social context in which attitudes and norms perpetuate the treatment of women as sexual objects and instill in men a sense of sexual entitlement
