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GC 100 Exam 3 Terms > Modules 9-12 > Flashcards

Modules 9-12 Flashcards

1
Q

Uniformitarianism

A

Processes active in the environment today have operated since the beginning of earth’s history

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2
Q

Relative Time

A

Sequences based on the relative position of rocks above/below each other

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3
Q

Relative Dating

A

Can determine the order of events based on relative position of rocks

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4
Q

Principle of Superposition

A

In undisturbed strata of sediment or rock, the bottom later is oldest, the top layer is youngest

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5
Q

Principle of Original Horizontality

A

Sediments are deposited in horizontal layers; tilting and deformation happen later

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6
Q

Principle of Lateral Continuity

A

Layers initially extend in all directions; later events (e.g. erosion, faulting) can separate layers

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7
Q

Principle of Cross-Cutting

A

Intrusions, erosion, or faults are younger than the rock they cut through

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8
Q

Principle of Faunal Succession

A

Some fossil species occur in unique time intervals, age of rock may be determined from those fossils

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9
Q

Absolute Time

A

The actual time elapsed (usually in millions of years, for geologic time), most commonly measured using radiometric dating

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10
Q

Radiometric Dating

A

Some isotopes of some elements cannot stay together indefinitely; they undergo radioactive decay, determine age by measuring the amount of “parent” atoms relative to the amount of “daughter” atoms

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11
Q

Radioactive Decay

A

The nucleus of a “parent atom” decays to “daughter atoms” (releasing radioactive energy in the process)

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12
Q

Half-Life

A

The time needed for half of the parent atoms to decay

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13
Q

Geologic Time Scale

A

Summary timeline of Earth’s hsitory

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14
Q

Eon

A

The largest unit of geologic time, divided into eras, then periods, then epoch

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15
Q

Priscoan Eon

A

Began with Earth’s formation, part of the Precambrian supereon

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16
Q

Archaean Eon

A

Single-celled organisms developed, part of the Precambrian supereon

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17
Q

Proterozoic Eon

A

Current geologic eon (last 540 million years; roughly 12% of Earth’s history), began with Cambrian explosion: the appearance of abundant animal fossils

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18
Q

Paleozoic Era

A

(“old life”) the appearance of fish, amphibians, reptiles, vascular plants. Part of the Phanerozoic eon

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19
Q

Mesozoic Era

A

(“middle life”) dominated by dinosaurs and conifers; earliest birds, mammals, and flowering plants. Part of the Phanerozoic eon

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20
Q

Cenozoic Era

A

(“recent life”) age of mammals. Part of the Phanerozoic eon

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21
Q

Quaternary Period

A

Last 25 million years. Glacial and interglacial periods; anatomically modern humans. Divided into Pleistocene epoch and Holocene/Anthropocene epoch

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22
Q

Rock

A

Assemblage of minerals bound together

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23
Q

Mineral

A

Naturally occurring, inorganic substance with specific chemical formula, physical properties, and crystalline structure

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24
Q

Crystalline Structure

A

Atoms arranged in a repeating pattern, often visible to the naked eye

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25
Q

Mineralogy

A

Study of the composition, properties, & classification of minerals

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26
Q

Silicate Minerals

A

Contain silicon (Si) and oxygen (O). Makeup 95% of the earth’s crust. Rocks formed from silicates are usually strong and relatively resistant to weathering and erosion

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27
Q

Quartz

A

Made of silica (SiO₂); the second most common mineral in Earth’s crust. Color is often transparent or white, can be many colors. Common in granite rock, gneiss rock, and beach or desert sand. Common silicate mineral

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28
Q

Feldspar

A

Most common class of mineral in the earth’s crust. Contain aluminum, potassium, sodium, or calcium. Color is usually pink, cream, or grey. Common silicate mineral

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29
Q

Mica

A

Family of minerals that breaks into flakes and sheets. Shiny, partly transparent; clear, silvery-grey, green, brown, or black. Common silicate mineral

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30
Q

Mafic Minerals

A

Contain magnesium or iron, plus Silicon (Si) and Oxygen (O). Usually dark-colored. Common silicate mineral

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31
Q

Carbonate Minerals

A

Contain carbonate CO₃ (Carbon and 3 Oxygen atoms) bonded with another element. Commonly a cream or grey color; sometimes clear

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32
Q

Oxide Minerals

A

Contain Oxygen bonded with a metallic element, like iron, copper, or titanium

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33
Q

Sulfate Minerals

A

Contain sulfate SO₄ (Sulfur and 4 Oxygen atoms) combined with some other element

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34
Q

Sulfide Minerals

A

Metallic element and sulfur atom. Commonly form in veins of ore

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35
Q

Salt Minerals

A

E.g., halite (NaCl, table salt); fluorite (CaF₂, calcium fluoride)

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36
Q

Chemical Composition

A

Every mineral has a specific chemical composition. However, in some cases, two or more different minerals may have the same particular combination of elements

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37
Q

Mineral Properties

A

Hardness, cleavage/fracture, color and streak, luster, magnetism, feel, odor or taste, and chemical reaction

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38
Q

Luster

A

Surface sheen of a mineral

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39
Q

Color

A

Most easily observable property of a mineral

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40
Q

Streak

A

Color of powdered form when scraped against a porcelain plate. Usually consistent for a specific mineral

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41
Q

Hardness

A

Each mineral can scratch certain other minerals, but not vice versa

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42
Q

Mohs Hardness Scale

A

The hardness of a mineral can be tested by trying to scratch it with a known object or known mineral

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43
Q

Cleavage

A

The tendency of minerals to break along plane surfaces

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44
Q

Fracture

A

When minerals do not break on a clean plane but break in some other characteristic way

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45
Q

Magnetism

A

A few minerals are attracted to magnets and/or will attract a compass needle to them. E.g., magnetite, pyrrhotite

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46
Q

Chemical Reactions

A

Certain carbonate minerals ‘fizz’ if they are exposed to acid. E.g., hydrochloric acid or acetic acid (vinegar))

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47
Q

Fluoresence or Phosphorescence

A

Some minerals glow when exposed to black light, or after being exposed to sunlight

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48
Q

Taste or Feel

A

E.g., halite (sodium chloride) is main component of table salt, e.g., sylvite has a bitter taste, e.g., bentonite (a volcanic clay) has a creamy feel

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49
Q

Sound

A

E.g. phonolite has distinct sound when struck with a hammer

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50
Q

Igneous Rocks

A

Rocks formed directly from magma or lava (Ignis=”fire”)

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51
Q

Sedimentary Rocks

A

Rocks that have formed from the deposition and compression of rock and mineral fragments or by precipitation of material in solution, Sedimentum= “settling” (Latin)

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52
Q

Metamorphic Rocks

A

Rocks that have been created from transformation by heat and/or pressure from existing rocks

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53
Q

The Rock Cycle

A

Describes transitions between the 3 types of rocks

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54
Q

Magma

A

High-temperature molten rock, below surface

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55
Q

Lava

A

Molten rock, that has spilled onto surface

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56
Q

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

A

Formed from magma that cools and solidifies slowly, below the surface

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57
Q

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

A

Formed from lava that has reached the surface, as lava flows or volcanic eruption; cools quickly

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58
Q

Igneous Rocks are Classified Based on:

A

Mineral composition and grain size

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59
Q

Felsic Minerals

A

FELdspar and SIliCa; High in silica, aluminum, potassium, sodium; Low melting points, light-colored, and less dense

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60
Q

Mafic Minerals

A

MAgnesium and FerrIC (Iron) compounds; High in magnesium and iron, with some silica; High melting point, dark-colored, and more dense

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61
Q

Ultramafic Minerals

A

Very high in magnesium and iron

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62
Q

Large Grain-size

A

Intrusive igneous rocks cool slowly

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63
Q

Small Grain-size

A

Extrusive igneous rocks cool quickly

64
Q

Obsidian

A

An extrusive igneous rock that cools very quickly (by contact with cold seawater), resulting in glass-like rock with no visible grains

65
Q

Pumice

A

An extrusive igneous rock that has air pockets formed when gases escape from lava giving it a frothy texture; very lightweight; floats in water

66
Q

Pluton

A

Any body of intrusive igneous rock

67
Q

Batholith

A

Massive, irregular-shaped pluton, that melted and assimilated much of the rock structure it invaded

68
Q

Sill

A

Magma spread between pre-existing strata, forming horizontal layers

69
Q

Dike

A

Magma cut across pre-existing strata of rock, forming a vertical wall

70
Q

Laccolith

A

Magma filled underground chamber, pushed overlying strata up forming a lens-shaped body of rock

71
Q

Lithification

A

Process of cementation, compaction, and hardening that turns loose sediment into rock

72
Q

Clastic Sedimentary Rock

A

Made from fragments or clasts of rocks which are compacted and cemented together

73
Q

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

A

Formed from dissolved minerals that are transported in solution and then recrystallize out as rocks

74
Q

Organic Sedimentary Rocks

A

Contain deposits of plant or animal remains

75
Q

Compaction

A

As layers of clastic sediment accumulate, lower layers are compressed by the weight of upper layers; amount of pore space decreases, as air and water are expelled

76
Q

Cementation

A

Dissolved minerals precipitate out of solution, recrystallizing in pore spaces and forming a natural cement that holds the clasts together

77
Q

Clasts

A

Fragments of rock or mineral; size determines how far they are transported before being deposited (large clasts settle out first)

78
Q

Evaporites

A

Rocks that form as water evaporates, leaving salts behind; e.g., halite (table salt), gypsum, epsomite

79
Q

Contact Metamorphism

A

Intruding magma heats and transforms (but doesn’t completely melt) adjacent rock

80
Q

Regional Metaphorism

A

Tectonic activity creates intense pressure, altering the mineral structure

81
Q

Rock Cycle: Below Surface

A

Heat and pressure

82
Q

Rock Cycle: Above Surface

A

The exposed rock is weathered, transported, and deposited as sediment

83
Q

Burial and Pressure

A

Compression and cementation, forming sedimentary rock

84
Q

How to Tell Rock Types Apart: Igneous

A

Grains interlock, minerals look fused or crystallized together

85
Q

How to Tell Rock Types Apart: Clastic Sedimentary

A

Grains touch but don’t interlock, held together by cement

86
Q

How to Tell Rock Types Apart: Chemical Sedimentary

A

Interlocking grains, the difference from igneous in the types of minerals

87
Q

How to Tell Rock Types Apart: Foliated Metamorphic

A

Twisted, folded, or swirled, or breaks into-thin layers

88
Q

How to Tell Rock Types Apart: Non-Foliated Metamorphic

A

Harder to ID: often based on mineral groupings

89
Q

Seismic Tomography

A

Image earth’s interior using earthquake waves

90
Q

Inner Core

A

Solid (due to high pressure, in spite of high temp), mostly iron and nickel

91
Q

Outer Core

A

LIquid (slightly lower pressure allows melting at high temp), mostly iron, with a little nickel

92
Q

Earth’s Magnetism

A

Caused by the flow of liquid outer core around the solid inner core

93
Q

Polar Wandering

A

The slow, erratic movement of magnetic poles, relative to the rotation axis

94
Q

Lower Mantle

A

Solid, rigid rock- due to pressure

95
Q

Upper Mantle

A

Solid, but not completely rigid

96
Q

Asthenosphere

A

Plastic rock (solid, but deforms and flows like dough), some molten hot-spots (syrupy consistency)

97
Q

Uppermost Mantle

A

Solid and rigid; part of lithosphere, less then 100 km thick

98
Q

Crust

A

Outermost layer of earth

99
Q

Oceanic Crust

A

Denser than continental crust, mostly basaltic rock

100
Q

Continental Crust

A

Less dense than oceanic crust, more granitic rock, with some basaltic rock

101
Q

Lithosphere

A

Outer shell of rigid rock, includes all of the crust, plus the uppermost mantle. Thicker under continents, thinner under oceans

102
Q

Lithosphere/Asthenosphere Boundary

A

Based on rigid vs. plastic consistency. The rigid ____ moves around atop ____ is plastic

103
Q

Crust/Uppermost Mantle Boundary

A

Based on a sharp change in density. The ___ is less dense than the ____.

104
Q

Isostasy

A

The equilibrium state of the lithosphere floating on the asthenosphere

105
Q

Mid-Ocean Ridge

A

Forms from upwelling magma, two sides of seafloor spread laterally apart

106
Q

Subduction Zone

A

Ocean crust sinks under some other crust

107
Q

Seafloor Spreading

A

As plates diverge, new oceanic crust will be continually added at the mid-ocean ridge

108
Q

Theory of Plate Tectonics

A

Encompasses continental drift, sea-floor spreading, and movement of crustal plates

109
Q

Divergent Plate Boundary

A

Plates spread apart; magma rises, forming new crust. Continental crust is uplifted and stretched; forms rift valley and block mountains

110
Q

Convergent Plate Boundary

A

Plates collide, crust destroyed, mountain building

111
Q

Transform Plate Boundary

A

Plate move past each other, crust neither formed nor destroyed

112
Q

Continental Shields

A

Large, ancient, low-lying expanses of crustal rock that form the core of continental landmasses

113
Q

Orogenic Belts

A

Regions of current or former mountain-building along margins of continental shields

114
Q

Orogenesis

A

Process of mountain building along a n active continental margin, via volcanism and tectonic activity

115
Q

Volcanism

A

Extrusion of magma at earth’s surface

116
Q

Tectonic Activity

A

Bending (folding) and breaking (faulting) of the lithosphere, usually causing metamorphism

117
Q

Orogeny

A

A mountain-building episode (over millions of years)

118
Q

Active Continental Margins

A

Where two plates converge; tectonically active

119
Q

Passive Continental Margins

A

Where continental crust and oceanic crust are on the same plate

120
Q

Geomorphology

A

The study of the formation and evolution of earth’s landforms and landscapes, through endogenic and exogenic processes

121
Q

Landform

A

A single, typical unit that forms part of the general topography. E.g., a hill, a mountain, a valley, a dune

122
Q

Landscape

A

A collection of landforms (often the same type of landforms). E.g., mountain chain, series of ridges and valleys, a string of dunes

123
Q

Endogenic Processes

A

Driven by internal forces of heat and convection in the earth; raise continental surfaces up

124
Q

Exogenic Processes

A

Driven by external forces like rivers, waves, ice, and wind; Usually lower continental surfaces

125
Q

The Geologic Cycle

A

Includes interactions among the hydrologic cycle, the rock cycle, and the tectonic cycle

126
Q

Hydrologic Cycle

A

Movement of water; drives weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition of rocks and minerals

127
Q

Tectonic Cycle

A

Recycling and renewal of earth’s crust; the crust is destroyed at subduction zones, new crust is created at the rift zones and by upwelling

128
Q

Rocks are subjected to 3 types of stress, which are expressed at the surface in different ways. The three types are:

A

Tension(or extension), Compression, and Shear

129
Q

Whether a rock breaks depends on:

A

Composition of the rock and the amount of stress

130
Q

Folding

A

Bending and deformation of beds (or layers) of rocks resulting from compressional forces

131
Q

Monocline

A

Landform in which deformation results in beds that are inclined in a single direction, in a step-like bend; Occurs because of relatively small amount of compression

132
Q

Anticline

A

Folded rock layer in arch- or ridge-like structure; Layers slope downward from central axis

133
Q

Syncline

A

Folded rock layers in rough- or valley-like structures; Layers slope upward from central axis

134
Q

Symmetrical Folds

A

Axial plane is vertical

135
Q

Asymmetrical Folds

A

Beds in one limb dip more steeply than those in the others

136
Q

Overturned Folds

A

Both limbs dip in same direction but one limb has been tilted beyond vertical

137
Q

Four Combinations of Anticlines and Synclines

A

Anticlinal valley, anticlinal ridge, synclinal valley, and synclinal ridge

138
Q

Identifying ridge of valley is based on:

A

Surface topography

139
Q

Identifying an anticline or syncline requires:

A

Looking at the layers of rock, not just the surface topography

140
Q

Plunging Folds

A

The axis (ridge of trough) of the fold dips (or plunges) downward at an angle

141
Q

Hogsback Ridges

A

Sharp ridge formed from edge of gently tipped, resistant rock that overlies softer rock; the softer rock erodes, forming a steep cliff

142
Q

Fault

A

A fracture in crustal rock, involving slippage of rock on one side of the fracture relative to the other side; Results when rock is stressed beyond its ability to remain a solid unit

143
Q

The Resulting Fault of Compression Stress

A

Reverse or thrust fault

144
Q

The Resulting Fault of Tension Stress

A

Normal or tension fault

145
Q

The Resulting fault of Shear Stress

A

Strike-slip or transform fault

146
Q

Reverse (Thrust) Faults

A

Caused by compression; causes shortening of crust as one block rides over the other; hanging wall is thrust up above the footwall; exposed part of hanging wall will typically erode.

147
Q

Normal (Tension) Fault

A

Causee by tension (pulling); causes lengthening of crust as blocks pull outward; hanging wall is thrown down relative to the footwall.

148
Q

Fault Scrap

A

Cliff formed by faulting

149
Q

Overthrust Fault

A

A reverse/thrust fault in which the fault plane is nearly horizontal

150
Q

Horst or Graben Landscape

A

Blocky landscape resulting from multiple normal faults acting in concert; often occurs in rift-zones with tension stresses on landscape

151
Q

Horst

A

Upward-faulted block

152
Q

Graben

A

Downward-faulted block

153
Q

Strike-Slip Fault (Transform Fault)

A

Caused by lateral shearing; movement is lateral; horizontal layers are not displaced on opposite sides of fault

154
Q

Left Strike-Slip Fault

A

Opposite side shifts to left

155
Q

Right Strike-Slip Fault

A

Opposite side shifts to right

GC 100 Exam 3 Terms (1 decks)

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