morning Flashcards
(12 cards)
top-down approach
-offender profiling-narrow down list of likely suspects-careful scrutiny of crime scene and analysis of other evidence to generate hypothesis about probable characteristics of offender
-American-FBI-1970s. -FBIs behavioural science unit drew upon data gathered from 36 sexually motivated murderers eg Ted Bundy
Phrase: “Offenders working with detached surgical precision”
This means that the offenders (criminals) are:
Highly precise and methodical — like a surgeon performing a delicate operation.
Emotionally detached — they show no empathy, hesitation, or emotional involvement in what they’re doing.
-little evidence/clues left at scene, above average intelligence, in a skilled professional occupation, socially and sexually competent, married and may have children
-spur of the moment, little evidence of planning, body still at scene, little control- lower than average IQ,be in unskilled work or unemployed,history of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships, live alone and often relatively close to offence.
-data assimilation(eg pathology reports),crime scene classification, crime reconstruction, profile generation
-s-Canter-analysis of 100 US murders by different serial killers-smallest space analysis(statistical technique that identifies correlations across different samples of behaviour-in this case co-occurence of 39 aspects of serial killing, eg torture/restraint,attempt to conceal body, form of murder weapon used, cause of death)-revealed subset of features
-C-Godwin argues its difficult to classify killers as one type or other
-S-Meketa reports its recently applied to burglary-85% rise in solved cases in 3 US states. Detection method adds to know categories-interpersonal and opportunistic
-L-25 of which were serial killers,other 11 being single or double murderers,24 were organised,12 disorganised, canter argued sample poor, not random or large and didn’t include different types of offender, no standard set of questions
bottom-up approach
-generate picture of offender-likely characteristics, routine behaviour and social background-through systematic analysis of evidence at crime scene. Data driven,rigorous scrutiny of details of offence
-investigative psychology-apply statistical procedures and psychological theory to analysis of crime scene evidence
-interpersonal coherence,significance of time and place,forensic awareness
-geographical profiling -cime mapping, based on principle of spatial consistency-can be used in conjunction with psychologic theory to create hypothesis about how offender is thinking well as modus operandi, marauder and commuter-can offer insight into nature of offence, eg planned or opportunistic, offenders ‘mental maps’,mode of transport, employment status, approximate age.
-s-Canter and Heritage conducted analysis of 66 sexual assault cases.Smallest space analysis, several behaviours identified as common in different samples of behaviour eg use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to victim. Each individual displayed characteristic pattern of behaviour and can establish whether two or more committed by same person.
-s-Lundigan and Canter,120 murder cases involving serial killers in US. Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in behaviour of killers
-75% of crimes not even reported to police in first place. -dark figure of crime’
Biological explanationan:historical approach
-1876-Lombroso suggested criminals were ‘genetic throwbacks’-a primitive subspecies who were biologically different from non-criminals.
-lack evolutionary development-savage and untamed nature means they would find it impossible to adjust to demands of civilised society and turn to crime.-natural tendency rooted in genes off those who engage in it.
-particular physiological markers that were linked to specific types of offence-biologically determined ‘atavistic characteristics’
-cranial (skull) characteristics, atavistic form included narrow sloping brow, strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones and facial asymmetry. Dark skin, extra toes, nipple or fingers-insensitivity to pain, use of slang, tattoos and unemployment.
-Murderers-bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears
-sexual deviants-glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips, projecting ears
-fraudsters-lips were thin and ‘reedy’
-Lombroso-meticulously examined facial and cranial features of hundreds of Italian convicts,living and dead-there was atavistic form and these features were key indicators of criminality. Examined skulls of 383 dead and 3839 living convicts-40% of criminal acts committed by people with atavistic form.
-s-changed face of study of crime,criminology,shifted emphasis in crime research away from a moralistic discourse(wicked and weak minded) towards scientific position (evolutionary and genetic, individuals. not to blame).
-Critic-DeLisi-racist undetones-view that fitted 19th century eugenic attitudes
-L-Goring-3000 offenders and 3000 non-offenders-no evidence that offenders are distinct group
Biological explanation:genetic and neural
-Christiansen studies over 3500 twin pairs in Denmark, concordance rate for offender behaviour 35% for identical twin males and 13% for non-identical twin males (slightly lower rates for females).Includes all twins born between 1880 and 1910 in a region in Denmark-offender behaviour checked against Danish police records-not just behaviour that’s inherited but underlying predisposing traits.
-Crowe-Adopted children who’s biological mother had criminal record had 50% risk of criminal record by 18, 5%
-Genetic analysis of almost 800 Finnish offenders by Tiihonen two genes- MAOA and CDH-13 associated with violent crime. MAOA, gene regulates serotonin in brain, linked to aggressive behaviour, CDH-13 gene linked to substance abuse and ADHD.- analysis found 5-10% all severe violent crime in Finland attributable to MAOA and CDH-13 genotypes.
-biological/psychological trigger-dysfunctional family/criminal role models
-much of evidence in this area involved individuals diagnosed with APD-associated with reduced emotional responses-lack of empathy for feelings of others, characterises many convicted offenders.
-Raine-conducted many studies of APD brain-several dozen brain imaging studies demonstrating individuals with APD have reduced activity in prefrontal cortex -regulates emotional behaviour.Raine and colleagues also found 11% reduction in volume of grey matter in prefrontal cortex compared to control.
-Can experience empathy but do so more sporadically(irregularly) than rest of us.Keysers found that only when asked to empathise with person depicted on film experience pain did their empathy reaction controlled by mirror neurones activate.-suggests they have neural switch which can be turned on or off-unlike normal brain which has empathy switch turned on all the time.
-s-diathesis stress model-13,000 Danish adoptees study conducted by Mednick-when neither biological or adoptive parents had convictions, percentage of adoptees that did was 13.5%(quite high),20% when either had convictions and 24.5% when both had convictions.
-s-Kandel and Freed reviewed evidence of frontal lobe damage(including prefrontal cortex) and antisocial behaviour-people with such damage tended to show impulsive behaviour, emotional instability and inability to learn from mistakes. Frontal lobe associated with planning behaviour.
-L-Farrington studied group of men who scored highly on APD-also experienced various risk factors during childhood, eg being raised by convicted parent or physically neglected-caused some neural differences such as reduced activity in frontal lobe due to trauma.
Psychological explanation:Eysencks theory
-Eysenck-proposed behaviour could be represented along two dimensions:introversion-extraversion(E) and neuroticism-stability(N), these combine to form variety of personality characteristics/traits. Eysenck later added psychoticism-sociability
-personality traits biological in origin-type of nervous system we inherit
-extraverts-underactive NS-seek excitement,stimulation and likely to engage in risk taking behaviours-dont condition easily.
-neurotic-high level of reactivity in sympathetic NS-respond quickly to situations of threat-nervous jumpy overanxious and general instability means behaviour difficult to predict.
-psychotic-higher testosterone and unemotional and prone to aggression.
-criminal personality type is neurotic extravert psychotic, neurotic unstable and prone to overreact to situations of threat
-eyesenck-offending behaviour developmentally immature-selfish and concerned with immediate gratification-socialisation-delay gratification and more socially orientated-less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses
-eyesenck personality questionnaire, form of psychological test which locates respondents along E,N and P dimensions- conduct research relating personality variables to other behaviours eg criminality.
-Eysenck and Eysenck compared 2070 prisoners scores on eyesenck personality questionnaire,2422 controls, prisoners recorded higher average scores on the 3 aspects
-C-Farrington meta analysis on relevant studies, high neuroticism not other 2. Inconsistent evidence of differences on EEG measures (used to measure cortical arousal) between extraverts and introverts-casts doubt on physiological basis.
-L-Moffitt-adolescence-limited behaviour and life course persistent behaviour, persistent result of reciprocal process between individual personality traits on one hand and environmental reactions to those traits on the other
-l-Bartol and Holanchock studied Hispanic and African American offenders in maximum security prison in New York. divided into 6 groups based on history of offending and nature of offences-all 6 groups less extravert than non offender control group- researchers suggested because sample very different cultural group.
psychological explanations-cognitive
-Kohlberg-moral reasoning-judgements on issues of right and wrong
-level 1 pre conventional morality-stage 1 punishment orientation-rules obeyed to avoid punishment, stage 2 personal gain-rules obeyed for personal gain,, level to conventional morality-stage 3 good boy or good girl orientation-rules are obeyed for approval, stage 4 maintenance of social order-rules obeyed to maintain social order, level 3 post conventional morality, stage 5 morality of contract and individual rights-rules are challenged if they infringe on rights of others, stage 6-morality of conscience-individuals have personal set of ethical principles
-Higher the stage-more sophisticated the reasoning
-Heinz Dilemma
-Kohlberg found that group of violent youths were at significantly lower levels of moral development than non violent youths even after controlling for social background.
-offedners pre conventional stage, non offenders progressed to conventions level and beyond. Need to avoid punishment and gain reward-less mature child like reasoning - may commit crime if they can get away with it or get rewards
-supported by studies showing that offenders more egocentric and display poorer social perspective taking skills than non offender peers. Individuals who reason at higher levels sympathise more with rights of others-exhibit more conventional behaviours eg honesty generosity and non-violence.
cognitive distortions-errors/biases in peoples information processing system characterised by faulty thinking
-hostile attribution bias-propensity for violence’s often associated with a tendency to misinterpret actions of other people-misread non aggressive cues.
-Schonenberg and Jusyte presented 55 offenders with pictures of emotionally ambiguous facial expression-compared to control-significantly more likely to view as angry and hostile.
-Dodge and Frame-showed children video clip of ‘ambiguous provocation’-intention neither clearly hostile or clearly accidental-children identified as aggressive and rejected prior to study interpreted situation as mire hostile.
-minimalisation-application of a ‘euphemistic label’ for behaviour.
-Barbaree found among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and further 40% minimised harm they had caused to victim.
-s-Palmer and Hollin-compared moral reasoning in 332 non offenders and 126 convicted offenders using SRM-SF- contains 11 moral dilemma related questions eg not taking things that belong to others and keep promise to friend.-less mature moral reasoning than control
-L-Thornton and Reid-financial gain showed pre conventional reasoning than impulsive crimes eg assault-pre conventional associated with crimes in which they believe they have good chance of getting away
-L-Howitt and Sheldon gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders, non contact sex offenders eg internet used more cognitive distortions - those who had previous history of offending more likely to use distortions as a justification.
psychological explanations:differential association theory
-Sutherland
-conditions said to cause crime to be present when crime is present and absent when crime is absent
-possible to mathematically predict how likely it is someone will commit offences-frequency,intensity and duration of exposure to deviant and non-deviant norms and values.
-learning attitudes, learning techniques
-socialisation in prison-explains reoffending
-c-impoverished crime ridden backgrounds
-white collar or corporate offences
psychological explanations:psychodynamic
-inadequate superego-form at end of phallic stage when children resolve oedipus complex-morality principle-punishes ego for wrongdoing-rewards it with pride for good moral behaviour.
-Blackburn argued if superego deficient or inadequate offending behaviour is inevitable because id free reign.
-weak superego-same gender parent absent during phallic stage, child cant internalise fully formed superego-no opportunity for identification
-deviant superego
-overharsh superego-crippled by guilt and anxiety- may unconsciously drive individual to perform criminal acts to satisfy superegos overwhelming need for punishment.
-affectionless psychopathy-lack of guilt, empathy and feelings for others, 14/44, 12/44, only 2/44 had experienced prolonged in non-offender group.
-s-Goreta conducted Freudian style analysis of 10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment, disturbances in superego formation, unconscious feelings of guilt and need for self punishment
-l-in UK 20 times more men in prison than women, in study where children were required to resist temptation-Hoffman found hardly any evidence of gender difference, if there was girls tended to be more moral than boys -alpha bias
-L-Lewis analysed data drawn from interviews with 500 young people and found maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future offending and ability to form close relationships in adolescence, also not necessarily causal relationship eg growing up in poverty.
dealing with offending behaviour:custodial sentencing
-deterrence(general deterrence and individual deterrence)
-Incapacitation(protect public)
-Retribution-eye for an eye
-rehabilitation
-stress and depression-suicide,self mutilation and self harm
-institutionalisation
-prisonation-socialised into adopting ‘inmate code’
-recidivism -45% recidivism rate uk in recent years. US, Australia and Norway regularly record rates in excess of 60%. Norway rates may be as low as 20%(greater emphasis on rehabilitation and skills development)
-L-Bartol has suggested imprisonment can be ‘brutal,demeaning and generally devastating’. Ministry of Justice-119 people killed themselves in prisons in England and Wales in 2016, and increase of 29 from the previous year. Average suicide of one every 3 days-9 times higher than in general population. Most at risk are young single men 24 hours after confinement. Study conducted by Prison reform trust found 25% women and 15% men reported symptoms of psychosis(schizophrenia)
-C-importation model argues some of the prisoners may import some of their psychological problems
-S-Vera institute of justice claims offenders who take part in college education programmes are 43% less like to reoffend following release,prisons who offer these programmes report fewer incidents of violence.
behavioural modification in custody
-all human behaviour learned-so should be possible to encourage unlearning of behaviour.
-operationalise target behaviours
-scoring system-how much each behaviour is worth, reinforcement should outnumber punishment 4:1
-train staff-standardise procedures, and record when given token so can track how each prisoner is doing.
-s-Hobbs and Holt-three behavioural units-fourth unit control.Observed significant difference in positive behaviour compared to non token economy group.Field found token economy token economy programme used with young people with behavioural problems was generally effective although a number didn’t respond. Later these youths were placed on a special programme where the rewards were more immediate and more frequent and results more positive.
-C-Basset and Blanchard found any benefits were lost if staff applied techniques inconsistently-eg lack of appropriate training or high staff turnover
-L-Blackburn-Little rehabilitative value
anger management
-Novaco suggests cognitive factors trigger emotional arousal which generally precedes aggressive acts, becoming angry is reinforced by individuals feeling of control in that situation
-cognitive preparation
-skills acquisition-cognitive(positive self talk to encourage calmness),behavioural(assertiveness training),physiological
-application practice-if successful positive reinforcement given by therapist.
-Keen has studied progress made by 17 and 21 year olds who took part in nationally recognised anger management programme. devised in 1992 and updated in 1995 the national anger management package was developed by England and Wales prison service-8 two hour sessions,7 in first 3 weeks and 1 a month later, initially offenders didn’t take course seriously and individuals forgetting routines eg struggling to bring diaries, final outcomes were generally positive -offenders reported increased awareness of anger management difficulties and increased capacity to exercise self control.
-L-Blackburn-reduces recidivism in long term
-L-Howells et al conducted investigation with Australian offenders-little impact compared to control-however significant progress made by those who showed intense levels of anger before programme, also offenders who were open to change and highly motivated from outset
restorative justice
-method of treatment seeks to be a healing process
-Braithwaite-crime hurts, justice should heal
-about reparation (repairing harm)
-focus on 2 things-survivor of crime and their recovery, offender and their rehabilitation process
-could occur pre-trial, offenders involvement could be considered during sentencing, or during sentencer as alternative to prison or as incentive to reduce time of sentence.
-restitution often seen as monetary payment-thus financial restitution
-other variations of the scheme may be offender repairing damage caused.
-can be in an emotional sense-support healing process. by repairing and rebuilding survivors confidence or self esteem.
-restorative justice council-independent body who’s goal is to establish clear standards for use of restorative justice and to support survivors and specialist professionals in field.Advocates use of restorative practices beyond crime-prevents and manages conflict in many areas eg schools, hospitals, children’s services.
-s-restorative justice council reported results of 7 year research project-85% of survivors reported satisfaction meeting offender face to face,78% would recommend to other people experiencing similar situation,60% said the process made them feel better about incident-enabling them to feel closure and move on-2% made them feel worse.
-C-Wood and Suzuki argue RJ not as survivor focused as reported in satisfaction surveys-RJ processes can become distorted eg using survivor as a way to rehabilitate offenders
-s-meta analysis of ten studies by Strang et al-compared offenders who experienced FTF RJ compared to custodial sentencing-RJ group significantly less likely to reoffend-reduction larger in violent crimes than crime against property.
-review of 24 published studies by Bain found lower recidivism rates with adult offenders, especially when one to one contact compared to general community involvement.
-L-Van Gijseghem suggests offenders may use RJ for all kinds of reasons-avoiding punishment, playing down faults, even taking pride in relationship with survivor using direct contact
