Motivation Flashcards

Question

Cognitive Psychologists are:

Answer 1

→ Forced to seek analogies and metaphors seeking explanations within the brain (brain works gets compared with processes we already understand) → Internal mental abilities are information processing systems (e.g. coding/channel capacity/serial parallel processing)

Answer 2

- Ellis rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT, previously just RET) → Following Rorer (1998) -> ''cognitive revolution started with publication of book Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy'' → Emphasis is on primacy of cognition in psychopathology → ''REBT attempts directly and actively to get clients to dispute their irrational and unscientific beliefs, and replace them with rational beliefs, which are less likely to be associated with extremely negative emotional states or maladaptive behaviours'' - Gross, 2020 - ''… people have enormous power to think about their thinking, to use rationality and the scientific method, and to radically control and change their emotional destiny - providing they really work at doing so.'' - Ellis, 1987

Answer 3

'We are born into a world where the conceptual frameworks and categories used by the people of our culture already exists … Concepts and categories are acquired by each person as they develop the use of language and are thus reproduced every day by everyone who shares a culture and language. This means that the way a person thinks, the very categories and concepts that provide a framework of meaning for them, are provided by the language that they use. Language therefore is a necessary pre-condition for though as we know it.'' - Burr, 2003 . ''Knowledge is therefore seen not as something that a person has or doesn’t have, but as something that people do together…''

Answer 4

- Speaking about ''key attitudes'' (proposed by Gergen, 1985) → A critical stance towards taken-for-granted knowledge - ''anti-essentialism'' → Historical and cultural specificity → Knowledge is situated by social process → Knowledge and social action go together

Answer 5

All knowledge -> Incl. Psychological knowledge -> Specific in history, culture,.. -> individual -> social -> political

Answer 6

(Neo-Darwinism) - Workman and Reader (2008) → Human mind is the product of evolution (just like any other bodily organ) – Gain better understanding by examining evolutionary pressure shaping it → Evolutionary Adaptedness/Adaptation (EEA) → Acknowledging debt to sociology – Criticising that overseen role of mind in mediating links between genes and behaviour → Traditional psychology – Tried to identify proximate mechanisms (e.g. individual's goals, knowledge…) → EP asks – Ultimate questions - Not: ''Why are some people more prejudiced than other?'' - But: ''Why is prejudice present in human being at all?'' … e.g. what evolutionary benefit does prejudice to human beings?

Answer 7

- SSSM has several broad assumptions about human beings, EP differs/rejects therefore the following (Workman&Reader 2008) . a. Humans are born as blank slates: knowledge, personality traits and cultural values are acquired from the cultural environment. There's not such thing as, 'human nature'. b. Human behaviour is infinitely malleable: there are no biological constraints on how people develop c. Culture is an autonomous force and exists independently of people d. Human behaviour is determined by a process of learning, socialisation or indoctrination e. Learning processes are general: they can be applied to a verity of phenomena

Answer 8

- EP is, in general, about universal features of the mind - In so far as individual differences exist, the default assumption is that they're expressions of the same universal human nature as it encounters different environments - Gender is the curtail exception to this rule. Natural selection has constructed the mental modules of men and woman in very different ways as a result of their fivergent reproductive roles (sexual dimorphism).

Answer 9

something that incites or has a tendency to incite to determination or action. positive or negative outcome to a situation. Motivates behavior.

Answer 10

- Cultural aspect → Therefore we write it out - Historical aspect → Job market - Religion → Constructed variable → Not general - Pathological motivation

Answer 11

→ Attempt to explain specific things that motivate people in different situations → Identifying people's needs and strengths → Some needs are – Primary/physiological/biologically driven – Secondary/Psychological/vary including power/achievement → Question: What motivates a person? → Examples – Maslow's Theory of Hierarchical Needs - The deficit principle: a stifled need no longer motivates behaviour - The progression principle: It is not hierarchical nor a pyramid – Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory – Motivators vs. Dissatisfiers

Answer 12

→ Try to identify relationships among variables → These relationships among variables make up motivation → Question: How motivation is initiated and sustained? → Examples – Expectancy Theory/Expectancy-Valence Theory (e.g. see Vroom) - Effort - arising from motivation - Performance - Outcome - Desirability of outcome determines whether or not someone will act to achieve outcome - We chose to do things with the greatest reward

Answer 13

- 'Motivation is the study of the determinants of thought and action - it addresses why behaviour is initiated, persists, and stops, as well as what choices are made. In attempting to develop a scientific explanation that examines these questions, researchers have formulated general theories that are guided by metaphors of what a person 'is'. These theories provide constructs that enable the theorists to transcend explanations of only specific instances: instead, they offer languages and general interpretations that are applicable across a variety of observations and situations.' - 'The roots of the motivational theories that have been developed can be traced back to the seminal contributions of Descartes and Darwin, for these giants provided new metaphors for - or was of thinking about - human motivation, shedding light on the unknown by making comparisons to that which is known. Descartes suggested that subhuman are machines, and Darwin documented that, therefore, humans are Godlike - that is, they have minds and engage in rational thinking and the judging of other. Darwin further presumed that rationality was characteristics of subhuman as well.'

Answer 14

- All psychological work, whether thinking or engaging in actions, requires energy → This assumption goes in parallel/fits the idea of a general force in nature → All in all, therefore energy/motivation is about – Conservation of energy – Entropy – Distinct between kinetic and protentional energy - Humans are closed energy systems → With individually given amount that remains same - Entropy means (saved) energy that cannot participate in doing work - Bound energy is cathected - So energy is kinetic or bound → Cathected -> Cathexis → Cathected - energy is stuck therefore we cannot use this energy for a specific task → Cathexis - explosion of all this energy

Answer 15

- Any self-regulating process by which an organism tends to maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are best for its survival. - A balance of several mechanisms including vesicular release from the presynapse, diffusion, uptake by transporters, non-synaptic production, and regulation of release by autoreceptors achieves neurotransmitter homeostasis near a synapse. These mechanisms are also affected by the glia surrounding the synapse.

Answer 16

- Homeostasis → Refers to tendency of maintaining a relatively stable internal environment → Propensity for the organism to remain in a state of internal equilibrium → e.g. organism is too hot, sweating occurs: too cold, reflexive shivering → Automatic action, without mental causation or intervention that brings organism back to equilibrium - Hedonism → Utilitarian doctrine (Jeremy Bentham, 1779) → Pleasure and happiness are the chief goals in life → 'If homeostasis is the governing principle of behaviour, then pleasure is the result or the by-product of being in a state of equilibrium' - We go from hedonism back to equilibrium

Answer 17

- Instincts correspond to bodily needs. - Represented mentally as wishes and desires. - Freud contended that instinct is a 'measure of demand made upon The mind for work'. - Instinct is an internal pressure 'from which there in no flight. - Many scholars believe therefore -> translation error to use instinct -> better would be drive.

Answer 18

- Pressure or strength → Impetus - Aim → Removal leads to equilibrium - Objects/Goals → Through which drives get satisfied - Sources → Underlying oddly processes

Answer 19

Super Ego - conscious, preconscious, unconscious. Ego - conscious, preconscious, unconscious. ID - unconscious.

Answer 20

- Restlessness -> Sucking a breast -> Quiescence - Cathexis -> Action on object -> Discharged cathexis

Answer 21

- Cathexis -> delay of gratification -> detour activity -> gratification - Cathexis -> drive object absence -> delay, with thoughts given to anticipation and plans for reaching the goal object

Answer 22

- Action → Primary – Id - Activity - Satisfaction – 'Reflex arc' -> machine metaphor → Secondary – Id - Ego - Delay Behaviour - Satisfaction – Ego prevents immediate expression - Thought → Primary – Id - Object absent - Hallucination - Satisfaction – Fantasy behaviour as a wish fulfilment → Secondary – Id - Ego - Plans - Satisfaction – Cognitions aid goal attainment

Answer 23

- Containing of: → Picture cards (31) 'open-ended dramatic content' → Short manual → Goes back to Henry A. Murray and Christina D. Morgan → Original intention – Usage of 20 picture cards → Nowadays (short version) x>5 picture cards → Average screening 12 picture cards

Answer 24

- Participants are asked to tell a story for each picture card presented, answering sub-questions like: → What has led up to the event shown? → What is happening in the scene? → The thoughts and feelings of characters? → The outcome of the story? → … → Needs 'honest' answers -> people can get trained

Answer 25

- A few believes have played central roles in ethologist's analyses: → Fixed action pater -> highly stereotyped responses that are assumed to be genetically programmed reactions that occur given the presence of a particular 'sign' stimulus → E.g. Stickleback Fish – Red colour - triggers aggressive behaviour to protect their offspring - Lorenz & Tinbergen -> 'Lock and Key' metaphor: → Explaining relation between fixed action pattern and the sign stimulus → Gese

Answer 26

- 'Ongoing impulses are blocked as long as the innate releasing mechanism, or IRM (which is presumed to inhibit the occurrence of the fixed action pattern), is not stimulated. When the adequate sign stimuli impinge upon the reflex-like IRM, the block is removed.' → Responses are not so much elicited by stimulus events but released by them.

Answer 27

- 'Hydraulic' metaphor: → Lorenz argues for action-specific energy for each fixed pattern; prolonging the time of no release leads to a more rapid response → 'Instinctive behavior thus consists of at least three components. First, appetitive behavior motivated by internal accumulation of readiness for a specific action. Second, activation of an IRM, which disinhibits the innate reaction. Third, discharge of the 'consummatory act', which is the purpose of the behavior.'

Answer 28

IRM (Innate Release Mechanism) -> FAP (Fixed Action Pattern)

Answer 29

- The increasing response readiness is most dramatically displayed in vacuum behavior, or behavior patterns that appear when the sign stimulus is not identifiable - The greater the accumulation of energy, the lower the threshold for stimulus to release the IRM, until the point where no identifiable stimulus be present to instigate the action. - Note: → It is the separation of the behavior from the normal releaser that provides the crucial evidence suggesting the existence of internal urges

Answer 30

- Correspond to state of internal agitation - Internal urge persists as long as an appropriate stimulus or object of attack is absent - Non-expression of instinct leads to accumulation of action-specific aggressive energy - Close to Freud's biological notion of aggression

Answer 31

- Two incompatible response tendencies are simultaneously aroused - e.g. stickleback fish → Boundary between own and others territory: both, attack escape behaviours are elicited -> inappropriate nest-building behaviour often is displayed

Answer 32

- Early/weak critics → 'accumulated energy cannot be found?' - Empirical evidence that behaviour can be varied by altering stimulus situation (Rowell 1961) - Ethologists have been sensitive to criticisms of earlier theoretical positions and now confine their work primarily to a search for the mechanisms that control action

Answer 33

- Lorenz, 1943 - 'The term baby schema refers to a set of facial features (e.g. large head and round face, a high and protruding forehead, large eyes, and small nose and mouth) commonly found both in human and animal infants. In classical ethology this specific configuration of features has been described as triggering an innate releasing mechanism for caregiving and affective orientation towards infants and more recently , its role in promoting human nurturing behaviour was demonstrated at the neurophysiological level using neuroimaging (Glocker et al., 2009).'

Answer 34

- All organisms (including human beings) are 'gene-producing machines' or 'survival machines' (Dawkins's, 1976) - Basic motivation -> perpetuating own genetic pool - Behaviour is therefore entirely selfish - Strategy is → Surviving → Reproducing → Aiding - In the survival of offspring

Answer 35

- 'Our genes have survived, in some cases for millions of years, in highly competitive world. This entitles us to expect certain qualities in our genes. I shall argue that a predominant quality to be expected in a successful gene is ruthless selfishness. This gene selfishness will usually give rise to selfishness in individual behaviour.' - In a nutshell → 'Anything that works - as long as it fits gene production and survival.'

Answer 36

- Compared to Darwin - Individualistic - How to explain altruism? → Darwin - altruism - for the group - Differs to 'reciprocal altruism' → Dawkins - reciprocal altruism - for me - Sociobiologists: → The survival of the self or species is not the ultimate motivation! What one is selfish about is the perpetuation of one's total genetic pool, which is ultimate motivator for action

Answer 37

'In this chapter, three biological approaches to human motivation - Freudian theory, ethology, and sociobiology - have been considered. All view behaviour as a product of a long history of evolution, and all are to some extent based upon the metaphor that the person is a machine. The paring of biology and machine is not coincidence, for if behaviour is viewed as a product of evolutionary history, then it will be shaped or determined by past history rather than (in addition to) current consciousness. The biological perspectives conceptualize behaviour as flexible and rigid, without conscious awareness of ends or goals, and/or driven by energy. All three approaches also are very much concerned with the function or the instrumental value of behaviour. This is because it is assumed that we live in a world of limited resource, and restrictions are placed by the social and cultural world upon the basic tendencies that are striving for satisfaction. Hence the expression and the inhibition of sexual, aggressive and/or altruistic tendencies, and the conflicts around these motivations, are of central importance. Of course, the approaches also differ in some very fundamental ways; in their empirical focus and range, in the constructs they use, in their assumption about energy, in their acceptance of proximal as opposed to ultimate determinants of behaviour, in the believe in and use of accepted scientific methodology, and on and on.'

Answer 38

- Drive instead of instincts have benefits for research: → Provided mechanists with a clear principle of mechanical causation → Drives, unlike instincts, 'promised' to be empirically tied to someone physiological base → Was impossible to investigate drives in the laboratory → Drive antecedents, such as hours of deprivation, could be manipulated systematically, and their behavioural effects could be observed under controlled conditions

Answer 39

→ Influenced by Pavlov, began a series of experimental and theoretical studies of experimental and theoretical studies - The system he developed is behaviourist, mechanistic, and avoids reference to 'consciousness' → At the time consciousness it cannot be observed at the time and if than very vaguely - The system consists of 17 postulates and 133 corollaries and theorems → It is characterized by objectivity, precision and hypothetical-deductive approach – Deductive - to pull together – Hypothetic - generating hypotheses (expectations) → Used method – Derivation of hypotheses (corollaries, theorems) from the postulates and then empirical testing of hypotheses - Complex behaviour, Hull assumes, can be derived step by step from more elementary form of learning → Behaviour, in Hull's view, as with his predecessors, is described by means of the S-R concept, only in much greater detail → S-R = Stimulus-response concept

Answer 40

- Introduction of drive or motivation concept → Learning only possible if behaviour is rewarded → i.e. if a reduction of the drive occurs → Motivation is a by product - System consists of statements about input, output and intervening variables and their relationships to each other → Input Variables (Stimuli) – Set of environmental conditions that affects the organism but do not necessarily lead to behaviour – They are objectively observable → Output Variables (Response) – Set of behavioural variables that are objectively observable → Intervening Variables (I) – Unobservable, link between input and output variables – R depends no longer only on S, but on S and I – The intervening variables play in Hull's system a central role

Answer 41

- Drive [D] → Deprivation leads to physiological needs in the organism → These needs lead to – A general, undirected energization, the drive - Hull thus represents a drive monism – Drive stimuli that directs behaviour - Directing aspect, learned → Drive must be deprivable - Habit [H] → Habit potential means the strength of the link between stimulus and response → H grows with the number of affirmed pairings of Stimulus and Response - Response potential [E] → Probability of exhibiting the response potential E is obtained by the multiplication of D and H

Answer 42

- Two essential modifications are necessary → Exp. of Crespi (1942) – Incentive of the target object → Exp. of Neil Miller (1948) – Existence of secondary, learned drives, since primary needs are not always present

Answer 43

- Running speed of rats as a function of reward value → Phase 1 – Running is rewarded with 8, 26, 64, or 256 food pellets → Phase 2 – All groups receive 16 pellets → Result – Acceleration of the 8 and 16 group – Deceleration of the 64 and 256 -> respectively speed is above and below comparison level of 16 food pellets - So called behavioural contrast effect in case of changing the reward amount - New theory → Behaviour = Drive * Habit * Incentive – Drive = 'push force', depends on duration of deprivation – Incentive = 'pulling force', is learned - Speed of running in long runway as a function of amount of reinforcement → For the first 19 trails different groups were given different amounts of pellets: after trail 20 all subjects received same amount (16) of pellets

Answer 44

- The apparatus used by Miller to study the learning of fear → Left compartment is white -> shock can be absorbed through floor → Right compartment is black -> 'safe zone' → Striped black and white door can be raised via mechanism - Phase 1 → The behaviour of the animals (n=25) is observed → The white chamber is without electricity the door open → The experimental animals do not prefer either chamber, show normal behaviour - Phase 2 → With the door open, the experimental animals in the with chamber are shocked for ten consecutive runs → If an experimental animal runs into the black chamber, the door closes behid it → It then remains in the shoch-free zone for 30 seconds → Result: Escape - Phase 3 → Five non-shock trail are made → Each time a test animal approaches the door, it is opened (by the experimenter) → Result: Avoidance - Phase 4 → Another 16 non-shock runs follow, but the door only opens when the experimental animal spins a pulley above the door - Phase 5 → In another series of non-shock runs, the roller no longer opens the door, but the lever to the left of the door does

Answer 45

- All animals learn to escape to the shock-free black chamber when shocked in the 2nd phase - They also do so in the 3rd phase, i.e., without shock being applied → The operation of the roller to open the door (4th phase) is learned by 13 out of 26 experimental animals → They constantly improve their performance (speed) over the 16 runs → The other animals show behaviour that indicates their 'fear' to the experimenter: they writhe, defecate, urinate → When only the lever opens the door, 12 of the 13 experimental animals learn this new manipulation - In Hull's understanding, learning occurred in this experiment without the existence of a drive

Answer 46

- Secondary, learned drives → Apparently, many human actions are not directly motivated by lack of food, water, or motivated by painful stimuli – Therefore, behaviour also occurs in the absence of primary needs → Hull postulated in 1951 in his book Essentials of Behaviour, 'even everyday observation shows that situations which have been associated with drives became drives themselves. Such learned, associated situational circumstances have motivating power' → Brown showed that many human actions would be motivated by learned fear, e.g. one learns to feel fear on the presence of wide variety of stimuli that signal the absence of money → Based on such and similar research, Hull made changes to his 1943 theory of motivation → Drive-generating conditions are no longer limited to physiological states of deficiency and any internal stimulus can take on drive properties, provided it is intense enough → Anything can become a secondary drive if the emotions are strong enough - Drive-generating --> string internal stimuli --> energized behaviour.

Answer 47

- At least five related areas can be determined → Anxiety → Conflict → Frustration → Social facilitation → Cognitive dissonance

Answer 48

- Miller's (1994) graphic summary of data on approach-avoidance conflict - 'the tendency to approach is stronger far from the feared goal, while the tendency to avoid is stronger near the goal' - Postulate 1: → The tendency to a goal is stronger the nearer a subject is to it - Postulate 2: → The tendency to avoid a feared stimulus is stronger the nearer the subject is to it - Postulate 3: → The strength of the avoidance tendencies increases more rapidly with nearness to the goal than does the strength of the approach tendencies → Avoidance > Approach - Postulate 4: → The strength of the tendencies to approach or avoid the goal varies directly with the strength of the drive on which they are based - Postulate 5: → Below the level of the asymptote of learning, increasing the number of reinforced trails increases the strength of the response tendency that is being reinforced → The validation of your expectation gets more valid - Postulate 6: → When two incompatible response tendencies are in conflict, the stronger one will be expressed

Answer 49

Similarities: - Behaviour is determined by energizing (ego, drive) and structural components (ego functions, habits) - Organism initiates behaviour to satisfy unmet needs (homeostasis principle - equilibrium) - Need satisfaction has a drive-reducing effect (hedonism doctrine) Differences: - Hull → Organism as an open system, mechanistic model of an energy-driven machine – Energy can be created → Energy driven machine -> Animals as experimental subjects → Methodology: experimental research - Freud → Closed energy system, drive energy influences mental processes – Energy cannot be created -humans as closed energy system → Humans as experimental subjects → Methodology: Clinical Casuistry

Answer 50

- The concept of optimal arousal in relation to performance is depicted here: - Performance is maximized at the optimal level of arousal, and it tampers during under- and overarousal - Individualistic

Answer 51

- Task performance is best when arousal levels are in a middle range, with difficult task best performed under lower levels of arousal and easy tasks best performed under higher levels of arousal

Answer 52

1. Anxiety is conceptualized as a nondirective drive. The emotional reaction to a stressor, which is the drive mechanisms, is a function of both the aversiveness of the stressor and individual differences in reaction to aversive events. The learning of individuals classified as high in drive is enhanced at easy tasks but inhibited at complex tasks. 2. The study of conflict has been clarified by model proposed by Miller. This model postulates that the change in the strength of avoidance motivation as a function of the distance from the goal (the 'steepness' of the gradient) is greater than the change in the approach gradient. This postulate, derived from drive theory considerations, enables the model to account for behavioral ambivalence. 3. There are two drive theories of motivation that can account for the energized effect of not attaining a goal: Brown-Farber theory and Amsel's conception. Both view frustration as a source of drive. 4. The drive theoretical approach to social facilitation suggests that the presence of others increase drive level, and thus interacts with habit in enhancing or interfering with performance. 5. Festinger has postulated that inconsistent cognitions also have the properties of drive, motivating the organism to reduce this equilibrium b changing behavior and/or attitudes.

Answer 53

- The whole is greater than the sum of its parts = Gestalt - Phi-Phenomenon - Muller-Layer-Illusion

Answer 54

- Ahistorical approach - only analysis of the current existing forces, previous events are disregarded - Behavior prediction: V = f(P,U) → P = person → U = environment - Behavior is a function of current characteristics of the person and the situation - Life Space: → Consists of what is subjectively perceived by the person (person and his environment, can be perceived e.g. positively or hostile) → Represents Psychological reality ≠ Physical reality - Foreign Hull: → Lies outside the habitat, is not relevant for the person and does not influence him (e.g. coconut at beach in Maui) → Person - also consists of different regions or structural constructs

Answer 55

- P represents the person - E represents the psychological environment

Answer 56

- The regions are separated by boundaries, which differ in their permeability - Adjacent regions border one another

Answer 57

- Structural (enduring) constructs of a person -> person can be point in life space or region → = regions – e.g. place of residence, hobbies, duties → Very different regions are 'more distant' → Similar regions are adjacent → In between are boundary walls, which can be permeable in different ways – e.g. needs can substitute each other - Dynamic (changeable) constructs of a person → = needs (biological) and quasi-needs (goals, intentions) – e.g. hunger, thirst → Create tension, which is released by satisfying a need

Answer 58

- Person areas are separated by boundaries, which are permeable to varying degrees → Exemplary here discussed -> within dynamic person construct – Tension arises in an area when (quasi) need is present – Tension is removed when a need is satisfied, tension can also be satisfied by a similar need if the two areas are closely adjacent and the boundary is permeable – The more permeable boundaries are, the more likely that satisfaction of an adjacent (quasi) need will lead to satisfaction of the adjacent need

Answer 59

Regions represent instrumental activities and path through which P locomotes to reach the goal

Motivation Flashcards

(83 cards)