Motor Development + Learning (ch. 5) Flashcards
(88 cards)
1
Q
Reflexes
A
Newborns start off with tightly organized patterns of action.
Some have adaptive values while others don’t
2
Q
Grasping reflex
A
Newborns closes their fingers around anything that presses against their palm when stimulated
- strong enough to hold own weight
3
Q
Rooting Reflex
A
- When stroked on the cheek, turn their heads in the direction of touch and open their mouths –> good for breastfeeding
- More likely to occur when infant is hungry
4
Q
Sucking Reflex
A
When in contact with breast/nipple, open their mouth for food, thus leading to swallowing reflex as well
5
Q
Tonic Neck Reflex
A
- not a beneficial or automatic reflex but is when an infant’s head turns or is turned to one side and the arm on that side of the body extends while the arm and knee on the other side flex
6
Q
Moro Reflex (startle)
A
Throwing back the head and extending the arms, then rapidly drawing them in, in response to a loud sound or sudden movement
7
Q
Stepping Reflex
A
Stepping or dancing with the feet when being held upright w/ feet touching a solid surface
- a neonatal reflex of infants living one leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern
8
Q
Cultural Differences
A
- Some cultures/areas of the world have certain opinions about crawling or environment doesn’t allow their children to crawl, so they can’t develop those locomotor skills.
- While others encourage crawling with limb massages and stretching
9
Q
Affordances
A
Possibilities for action offered, or afforded, by objects and situations
ex = small objs afford the possibility of being picked up and that solid flat surfaces afford stable walking etc
- infants discover this by figuring out the relations between their body and abilities w/ things around them
10
Q
Role of Motivation
A
- Their milestones are determined by what they can perceive of the external world and their motivation to experience it.
- infants who are better able to interact with their environment mayb have an advantage in perceptual and cognitive development by being able to seek out new opportunities for learning
11
Q
Complexity of Reaching
A
requires muscle development, postural control, and development of various perceptual and motor skills
12
Q
“Disappearing Reflex” Case by Thelen (1995)
A
- infants submerged in water with feet touching bottom, triggering their stepping reflex
- Typically, this reflex would stop at around 2mo, but through this research, found with practice in this tank, infants continue to do the stepping reflex
- Disappears because of an increase in body mass as they get older (example of dynamic systems theory!)
13
Q
Pre-reaching Movements of Infants
A
Clumsy swiping in general vicinity of objects
- at about 3-4mo, they begin o successfully reach for objects, although movements are initially somewhat jerky and poorly controlled
14
Q
Experiment about pre-reaching behavior
A
- Infants given velcro mittens and toys which allowed them to pick them up
- Shouwed that infants had an increase interest in objects and an earlier emergence of their ability to reach independently, as well as greater patterns of object exploration
15
Q
What age does stable sitting and smooth reaching develop?
A
Around 7 months since they can lean forward to capture objects
16
Q
Importance of manipulating objects
A
Self directed visual expereince helps infants learn labels for objects and those who gather more variable visual info by manipulating them show larger increases in vocabularies over time
17
Q
Social Component of Reaching
A
Infants around 8mo are more likely to reach for a far away object when an adult is near. They have the support near if they’re unsuccessful on their own
18
Q
Self-Locomotion
A
At about 8mo, infants move around in the environment on their own (no longer limited to being where someone else carries/puts them)
- Infants, rather than crawling babies, can easily see a caregiver’s face (i.e. why infants look longer at faces)
19
Q
At what age do infants first begin walking independently?
A
Around 11 to 12 months and keep their feet relatively far apart for support
20
Q
Scale errors
A
The attempt by a young child to perform an action on a miniature object that is impossible due to the large discrepancy in relative size of the child and object
21
Q
Media errors
A
A child using interactive tech tries to pass or receive an object through the screen
22
Q
Habituation
A
- A decrease in response after repeated stimulation
- reveals learning has taken place and the infant has formed a memory representation of the stimulus
23
Q
Speed of Habituation
A
- Is believed to reflect the general efficiency of the infant’s processing of info
- Infants who habituate rapidly (take relatively short looks and/or who show a greater preference for novelty) tend to have higher IQs
24
Q
Statistical Learning
A
Involves detecting statistical patterns
EX: certain events occur in a predictable order, certain objects appear at the same time and place, etc (like the regularity with which the sound of Mom’s voice is accompanied by her face)
25
Experiment of Statistical Learning
2-8mos were habituated to 6 simple visual shapes presented one after the other with specific levels of probability. In a test, the order of appearance of one or more of the shapes changed = the infants looked longer when the structure inherent in the initial set was violated, suggesting they learned the order of the shapes originally presented
26
What patterns do infants prefer? [Goldilock effect]
They prefer to attend to certain types of statistical patterns like patterns that have some variability RATHER than perfectly predictable or very complex (random) patterns
27
Classical Conditioning
- plays a role in infants' learning about the relations between significant environmental events
EX: predictable meal times and sucking reflex is activated, and they're given milk which is a pleasurable sensation
28
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
- the nipple is the infant's mouth is an example of this that elicits an unlearned response
29
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
- the sucking reflex elicited
30
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
- Learning occurs when an initially neutral stimulus (i.e. breast of bottle) repeatedly occurs just before the UCS
31
Conditioned Response (CR)
Gradually, the originally reflexive response becomes a learned behavior, triggered by exposure to the CS (i.e. anticipatory sucking movements now begin as soon as the baby sees a bottle or breast)
32
Instrumental Conditioning
- aka operant conditioning
- involves learning the relationship between a behavior and its consequence
33
Positive reinforcement
- A reward that reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
- a contingency relation exists between the behavior and the read: the infant performs the target behavior, THEN they receive the reinforcement
34
Carolyn Rovee Collier (1997) Experiment
- Ribbon tied to infant's ankle + connected to a mobile hanging above. Naturally kicking their leg, the infant (as young as 2mo) learn the relation between their leg and the mobile = they increase their rate of kicking
- Mobile movement serves as a reinforcement for the kicking
- 3mo remember the kicking for 1 week but 6mo remember for 2 weeks
35
Observational learning
- Imitation is a form of observational learning
EX: after watching adults slowly stick out their tongue, infants mimic this behavior
- Other studies have failed to replicate this, thus calling this imitation into question
- 6 to 9mos seem to be able to mimic behavior (box light up experiment)
36
Imitating Intentions
- 18 mos see someone try and fail to pull the ends off a dumbbell, they imitate pulling the ends off --> the action the person intended to do, not what the person actually did (don't mimic a mechanical device that does same action of pulling)
37
Mirror Neurons
- Discovered when monkey's brain activity lit up when they watched someone lift an ice cream cone to their mouth and the premotor cortex began firing as though the monkey itself were about to eat the ice cream
- Mu rhythm = brain system activation by viewing actions like facial movements but NOT by movements of inanimate objects
38
Infant's mu rhythms
7mos whoe brains showed greater mu rhythms while observing an experimenter produce goal-directed action were later more likely to reproduce the action
- however, unclear about when exactly these brain patterns form
39
Experiment of Grit
Infants saw experimenter struggle but be successful in getting a toy to play music compared to those who saw the experimenter effortlessly get it to play = infants that saw a struggle also tried harder and longer just as they observed
40
Rational Learning
The ability to use prior experiences, beliefs, and biases to predict what will occur in the future
EX: red + white balls being taken out of box = infants looked longer at the mostly white display of balls b/c it went against their expectations
41
Active Learning
Learning by engaging with the world rather than passively observing objects and events
- active engagement facilitates learning
42
Sound-Object Pairing
Infants learn more about the object-sound pairings when the object did an unexpected thing (pass through a wall, things hanging in the air etc)
43
Surprise as a Driving Force for Active Learning
When something unexpected happens, infants are more likely to seek out an explanation (ex: sound object pairs like balls passing through a wall)
44
Innate Pattern Perception study
Baby chicks had shape placed above cage that looked either like hawk or goose depending on direction is "flew" = suggests how mature is built into patterns to help avoid predators b/c they'd hide/be threatened when it looked like a hawk
45
Studies of Face Perception in Infants
1. Infants given pic of face and a newspaper --> they prefer to look at face for longer
2. infants given regular face and jumbled up face --> prefer to look at correctly oriented face
3. Infants follow basic paddle with simple shapes that look like face --> suggests pattern/template of human face is innate
46
Face Recognition
Infants prefer + recognize their mom's face after about 12 cumulative hrs of exposure
- they can recognize new and familiar ppl apart (around 9mo, they look longer at new face)
47
Species Bias
- at 9mo, can't tell 2 monkeys apart
- younger infants (~6mo) CAN tell difference
- due to the narrowing effect of face processing = they see more human faces than monkey faces over time
48
Perceptual narrowing
Brain uses environmental experience to shape perceptual abilities
- Due to snpatic pruning --> w/ experience, stronger connections stay and others pruned (i.e. increase in perception of things that you often see and a decrease in things you don't often see)
EX: loose ability as you get older to distinguish monkeys
49
"Other Race" Effect
- as adults, you make more mistakes and are slower when person isn't same race
- @ 9mo = infants are more likely to misperceive 2 different ppl from same race as the same
- @3mo, infants have easier time telling ppl apart, regardless of race
50
Auditory Perception
- begins prenatally
- well developed at birth = mid range, localization reflex
- adult like by ~6mo = freq range, intensity
51
Sound Localization
Experience in the dark!
- When kids tested w/ darkness + toys, they're good at locating which side noisy toy is on and its distance
- tests how well they can discern difference between toys + their sound as well as how close/far they are
52
Music Perception
- changes in beat = newborns, even asleep, can keep a rhythmic beat
- changes in melody = ~7mo, relative and some absolute pitch )better at recognizing perfect pitch)
- familiar w/ irregular musical phrases = ~4mo, based on culture too
- culture specific rhythm patterns = western vs balkan music
53
Cross Modal Perception
- in addition to perceiving things by senses, must come to appreciate relationships between preceptors (i.e. sight and sound)
54
Tactile Familiarization
- 1mo babies allowed to mouth a nubby or smooth pacifier then shown 2 pics of pacifiers = w/ preferential looking, we can see which one they recognize as the one they experienced even though they NEVER saw the actual pacifier (just basing this on feel and experience)
- ability to detect correspondence between actual + visual modalities doesn't need to be learned
55
Hearing + Motion test
through dancing test = 5mo to 2yrs tested with various tempos an see if they can react
- babies who hear rhythmic music will move some aspect of their body (arms, head, legs, etc)
- more in sync to music shown to be more smiley + happy
- synchronizing to sound was a community thing since you see ppl moving and grooving in public spaces rather than private
56
Synesthesia
- the overlapping of different sense (when we hear certain sounds, see color)
- some research believes we're all born with an overlap of our sense but through dev and synaptic pruning, there's less of those connections
- EX: taste something and see color
57
Altricial vs Precoial
- Humans are born altricial (useless) in our motor abilities vs animals are precocial (born w/ motor coordinance that allows them to survive)
- Humans don't have to worry about running from predators
EX: chicks, horses, fawn
58
Head Size
- our heads are 47% larger than gorillas (so brain size is a constraint for motor abilities)
- our brains are more energy needy + our metabolism needs so much energy so motor abilities are not as quick to dev compared to animals
59
New born reflexes
- movements start prenatally but mostly just reflexes
- are innate, fixed patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation
- shared w/ adults = blinking, coughing, sneezing
60
Purpose of Survival Reflexes
- serve obvious physical needs (breathing, swallowing, blinking, sucking, pupillary, rooting)
- some are designed to stay + others meant to leave overtime
- as your brain matures, it changes and some leave
- atypical dev diagnosed when somethings that should've stayed are gone + vice versa
61
Purpose of Primitive Reflexes
- serve no obvious physical needs + vestiges of important reflex behaviors at earlier stages of human evolution (moro, tonic neck, stepping, grasping, babinski, swimming)
62
Swimming
instinctively moves arms and legs while holding breath when in water
63
Babinski
stroke bottom of foot and toes curl in/move
64
Disappearing Reflexes
- most newborn reflexes disappear w/in first 6 months
- lingering reflexes can be symptomatic of neuro problems
65
Dynamic Systems Theory
Development of complex behaviors should be understood in terms of a complex interaction of physical, environmental, and perceptual factors
- actions can be influenced by bodily mechanisms (EX: increase in strength, posture control, balance, motivation)
- actions need to be coordinated w/ our systems
66
Social Reflex (Infant imitation test)
- if you stick your tongue out at an infant, they see it and imitate it
- more often than not, newborn will imitate the tongue protrusion and open mouth
- PURPOSE = more attached to person when you imitate (social connection) BUT still debated
67
Motor Milestones
- lose many newborn refelxes
fetal postion (newborn -> holds chin up (1mo) -> holds chest up (2mo) -> sits with support (4mo) -> sits alone (7mo) -> stands holding furniture (9mo) -> crawl (10mo) -> walk if led (11mo) -> stands alone (11mo) -> walks alone (12mo)
68
Locomotion
~8mo = infants become capabe of self-locomotion for 1st time as they begin to crawl
~13mo = begin walking independently
69
What is the nature of change?
- biologically = fixed timetable (i.e. tadpoles)
- Driven by practice and earl experience
70
How does nature address the nature of change?
-Motivation to walk, fixes sequence, consistent timing
71
Early Maturation Studies
- identical twins + stair test = 1 twin receives training while other doesn't
- Wait specific time + see difference
- Both twins learned how to crawl on stairs no matter exp.
- this makes it seem like biology is "key"
72
Motor Deprivation (Hopi Infants)
- these infants swaddled tightly around parent for safety for 1st yer of life
- almost NO delays --> hit milestones as any other (severe enviro restriction doesn't delay biological timeline)
73
Romanian Orphans
- infants only received bottles and no/little to no touch and being picked up out of crib
- significant delays in motor development since couldn't leave crin
- BUT reversible when in good early home early on
74
Back Lying + Locomotion
- in western society, we make infants spend time on backs while playing and sleeping --> reduces SIDS risk
- BUT delays ability to roll over/crawl (~2mo late) because of under developed neck, back, and arm muscles
- Less motivation to roll over when on back because they have a good view
- Leads to flat heads (malleable 6-10mo)
75
Positive Cross cultural differences
- Kipsigis community in Kenya = babies sit upright 5 weeks earlier and walk 3 weeks earlier
- anthropologists thought it was an "innate ability," but psychologists realized it's b/c they're propped upright in holes + receive walk training after 8 weeks (gives them opportunity to strengthen neck and back)
76
Malian Culture
- 60% of infants never crawl = believe exercise promotes motor development, crawling not seen as an important stage (use baby dangling instead)
- Example of experiences w/in certain limits can have POSITIVE effects
77
Reaching [Action + Perception]
Coordination: object to object, object to body, body to other body part (VERY COMPLEX)
- must calibrate in response to constant changes
EX: body proportion = enormous changes in limbs to head ratio from prenatal to adulthood
78
Berkley (1709) [Early Theories of Coordination]
- no real coordination at birth
- trial and error learning (must get experience)
- associations are gradually built between eye and hand
79
Baby Chick Pecking Accuracy
- Clay floor allows for their pecks to leave marks
- Newborn chicks NOT accurate but 4 day old chicks are more accurate (is this learning?)
- chicks w/ prism = newborns peck off centered and 4 day old chicks w/ prism STILL off centered = they're not adjusting their experience based on the reward
- SUGGESTS brain maturation and biology initially are important in accurate pecking!
80
Cats + Darkness Study
- cats raised in darkness placed in carousel where 1 touches ground and other doesn't (active v. passive)
- RESULTS = active cat responded normally to not jumping off visual cliff while passive cat jumped off
- active cat blinked in response to incoming stimuli
- active cap lowered feet toward an approaching surface
= SUGGESTS motor activity needs to be paried w/ visual input in order for typical visual-motor integration to occur
81
Humans w/ Prism eyewear study
- Mind should adjust to new visial experience
- if prism worn + walk = human mind adjusts (active)
- if prism worn + NO walking = no adjustment (passive)
82
Reaching timeline
- 0-3 mo = pre-reaching movements (clumsy swipes toward general vicinity of objs)
- ~3mo = successful but poorly controlled. Appreciates functional goal, easier w/ legs than arms
- 7mo = along w/ ability to sit independently, reaching becomes stable
- 10mo = show signs of anticipatory reaching + approach is affected by what they intend to do w/ objs (i.e throwing vs. shuffling)
83
Feet
- Feet have more control + less degrees of movement than arms
- arms can move in so many different ways
EX: 2-3mo infants too young to reach for objs on own so given velcro mittens
- when they reach and get toy, they have experience of reaching (active)
- when parents grab toy and give to baby even tho baby could've reached, they don't fully get experience of reaching (passive)
= THIS MEANS w/ more active exp., pushes development at faster pace + leads to more coordinated reaching
84
Walking + Seeing
- vision provides valuable info about how we're moving
- walking at diff speeds produces diff "flow patterns" or "Visual flow fields" that we use to help balance
85
Visual flow fields
- blind children show delays in walking due to not having this expereince
86
Visual Flow field TESTING
- test age in which infants become sensitive to VFF
- baby sits/stands in room w/ rigged striped walls that move to see if they notice a difference when wall comes closer
87
Visual flow field LEARNING
- active experience needed to coordinate body and movement
EX: new crawlers don't care about visual cliff (passive), but those w/ more experience crawling don't cross cliff (active)
= Motor + vision (an example of active child)
88
Coordination across stages
- requires experience at each different stage + posture = you learn it again as you change postures
- when newly walking, lose previous experience + knowledge from crawling
- infants don't seem to transfer what they learned in one motor stage to another!!!! (this requires experience when you can combine what you've learned)
