Motor Learning Principles: Lecture 2

Question 1

Motor learning

Answer 1

Acquisition or modification of movement

Reacquisition of movement skills lost through injury

Relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience

Question 2

Characteristics of motor skill learning

Answer 2

• improvement over time
• consistency
• stability
• persistence
• adaptability
• reduction in attentional demand

Question 3

Transfers

Answer 3

Positive: beneficial effect of prior learning on learning of a new skill or performance of a skill in a new context

Negative: negative effect of prior learning on learning of a new skill …

Question 4

Tests of learning

Answer 4

• retention
• novel variation of practiced skill
• transfer

Question 5

Bilateral transfer

Answer 5

Transfer of learning that occurs between UEs or LEs (also: inter-manual or cross transfer)

Cognitive/motor program theory explanation

Question 6

Speed-accuracy skills

Answer 6

When speed is emphasized, accuracy is reduced and vice-versa

When both are essential, there is a trade-off (reduction in both)

Fitt’s Law

Question 7

Spatial accuracy

Answer 7

Accuracy is required of aiming movements for which spatial position of the movement’s end-point is important to task performance

Question 8

Temporal accuracy

Answer 8

Accuracy of timing the movement - when the movement should be executed is important to task performance

Question 9

Rapid forceful movements

Answer 9

Exception to speed-accuracy trade-off

Extremely forceful muscle contractions close to maximal effort with high speeds are associated with increased consistency

Ex: swinging baseball bat harder and faster drives the ball farther, but does not compromise timing accuracy

Question 10

Declarative/explicit learning and memory

Answer 10

• facts/events
• steps in a process

Question 11

Non-declarative learning

Answer 11

Non-associative
- habituation
- sensitization

Associative
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning

Procedural
- tasks
- habits

Question 12

Habituation

Answer 12

non-associative

decreased responsiveness as result of repeated exposure to a nonpainful stimulus

Ex: no longer noticing sensation of wearing a hat

Question 13

Sensitization

Answer 13

non-associative

increased responsiveness following a threatening or noxious stimulus

Ex: flinching with needle prick after first needle prick

Question 14

Classical conditioning

Answer 14

Associative

Stimulus leads to outcome

Question 15

Operant conditioning

Answer 15

Associative

Behavior –> reward –> more behavior

Behavior –> adverse event –> less behavior

Question 16

Tasks/habits

Answer 16

Procedural

Learning automatically with little attention or conscious thought

Repeating a movement many times will lead to procedural learning

Question 17

Implicit vs explicit learning

Answer 17

Implicit procedural learning relies on basal ganglia and cerebellum
- explicit instructions, conscious cuing, auditory and visual cuing will work better

Explicit learning relies on interpretation of language
- tactile cues, demonstration, hand over hand will work better

Question 18

Recall schema

Answer 18

motor parameters and movement outcomes over many trials creates a rule

Schmidt’s

Question 19

Recognition schema

Answer 19

sensory consequences coupled with initial conditions to create a representation of expected outcomes

Question 20

Ecological theory (newell)

Answer 20

Motor learning is a process: increased coordination of perception and action given the task and environmental constraint

Search for optimal motor response and perceptual cues to solve a task

Question 21

Fitts and Posner Three Stage Model of Motor Learning

Answer 21

Cognitive stage
- understand the nature of task
- develop strategies use to carry out task
- determine how task will be evaluated

Associative stage
- Person has learned to associate environmental information with required movements
- Refines performance to be more consistent

Autonomous stage
- Performance is automatic
- Low degree of attention required

Question 22

Gentile’s two stage model of motor learning

Answer 22

Initial stage (fixation)
- getting the idea of the movement
- organizing movement pattern
- learning relevant features (reg vs non-reg)

Later stage (diversification)
- adapts movement pattern to demands of any performance situation
- increased consistency
- low effort required

Question 23

Bernstein’s three stage model of motor learning

Answer 23

First stage - novice
- reduce/freeze degrees of freedom to a minimum

Second stage - advanced
- release some additional degrees of freedom, some synergies develop

Third stage - expert
- release all degrees of freedom (flexibility)

Question 24

OPTIMAL motor learning theory

Answer 24

(Enhanced expectations + autonomy + external focus) + increase focus on task goal = increase motor performance and motor learning

Emphasis on motivational factors (social, cognitive, affective, self-efficacy)

Question 25

Verbal instructions - factors to consider

Answer 25

- amount should consider attention and working memory limits - verbal analogies may encourage implicit learning - instruction can influence performance negatively

Question 26

Visual demonstration

Answer 26

Demonstration leads to better learning than other instruction forms when the skill being learned requires the acquisition of a new pattern of coordination Neural basis

Question 27

Visual cues with demonstration

Answer 27

- results from the direct observation of a person performing or learning a skill - demonstration should precede practice - can demonstrate as frequently as necessary - learners should self-select when to receive demonstration

Question 28

Manual guidance - tactile cuing

Answer 28

- assistance or facilitation - do not do too much for the person - withdraw guidance as person develops mvmt - allow for error so learner can correct

Question 29

Feedback

Answer 29

Task-intrinsic - visual - auditory - proprioceptive - tactile Extrinsic/augmented - knowledge of results - knowledge of performance

Question 30

Knowledge of results

Answer 30

Externally presented information about the outcome of an attempt to perform a skill Ex: you walked 10 ft farther today than yesterday

Question 31

Knowledge of performance

Answer 31

Externally presented information about movement characteristics that led to the performance outcome Ex: you should lift your toes as you land on your heels

Question 32

Timing of augmented feedback

Answer 32

Concurrent - while person is performing skill - positive or negative effect - variations can influence whether learners become dependent on FB Immediate - too quick FB does not allow learner time to internalize or process movement Terminal/summative - provided after a person has completed skill

Question 33

Frequency of feedback

Answer 33

- learner becomes dependent on extrinsic FB - learning is initially easier and less effortful - learner is less likely to develop their own error detection and correction processes - during practice, FB should be primarily informative

Question 34

Massed practice (at a time)

Answer 34

Amount of practice time in trial greater than amount of rest between trials Longer, fewer sessions Ideal when treatment goal is conditioning Continuous skills

Question 35

Distributed practice (over time)

Answer 35

Amount of rest between trials is equal to or greater than amount of time for a trial Some learning improves when people practice skills in more frequent and shorter practice sessions Allows for performance reflection Better when: - safety is a concern - limit or avoid fatigue - limit symptom provocation

Question 36

Practice conditions

Answer 36

Practice amount at a time - Massed vs distributed Practice of specific task and variability of task - constant vs variable Practice sequencing - blocked vs random & contextual interference Whole vs part task practice

Question 37

Constant practice (task)

Answer 37

Practice of one variation of the skill Pts. may need sensory, cognitive, perceptual practice in a more constant fashion prior to making it more variable Ex: sit to stand from same chair height and firmness

Question 38

Variable practice (task variance)

Answer 38

Refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics while practicing a skill - increases ability to adapt and generalize learning - more difficult during acquisition and tends to degrade performance - increases learning and transfer

Question 39

Constant vs variable practice

Answer 39

Constant: free throw practice from line; initially improved w practice but upon retest was back to baseline Variable: practiced from other positions; initially improved and better than baseline at retest

Question 40

Blocked practice (sequence)

Answer 40

Practice a task several times before moving onto the next task Practice sequence can be blocked and have constant/variable skill practice - sit to stand for several trials from same surface (blocked, constant) - sit to stand for several trials from different heights and surfaces (blocked, variable)

Question 41

Random practice (sequence)

Answer 41

A practice sequence where several tasks are practiced in no particular order The same task is rarely repeated on consecutive trials Does not integrate well with constant practice, but does with variable Best for retention transfer

Question 42

Contextual interference

Answer 42

The memory and performance disruption that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practice Effect occurs when a high amount of contextual interference results in better learning

Question 43

Challenge point hypothesis

Answer 43

Dosing practice Challenge is required to engage the cognitive processes associated with motor learning Point of optimal challenge that yields maximum practice benefit Experimental variables - skill level - task difficulty Motor tasks represent different challenges for performers of different abilities Predicted success vs nominal task difficulty