MT1 intro to social/developmental psych- helping

Question 1

What were the contemporary reactions to the Kitty Genovese murder

Answer 1

The tragedy was the consequence of city living and urban alientation

Question 2

What was the reported Kitty Genovese case

Answer 2

38 individuals saw the murder of Kitty Genovese and did nothing, noone telephoned the police went to help

Question 3

What were the facts of the Kitty Genovese case- 38 witnesses?

Answer 3

Manning et al (2007)- no evidence 8 people witnessed the assult, the trial only called on 5

Question 4

What were the facts of the Kitty Genovese case- attacks?

Answer 4

Manning et al (2007)- there were 2 seperate attacks not 3, and they did not continue for ‘more than half an hour’

Question 5

What were the facts of the Kitty Genovese case- witnesses watching the murder?

Answer 5

Witnesses mostly heard rather than saw the original brief attack, the second attack was in a stairwell and could not be easily seen

Question 6

What were the facts of the Kitty Genovese case- no intervention?

Answer 6

Shouts from the apartment block opposite initially scared the attacker off, police were contacted after the 1st attack despite no 911 service being available, victim was still alive when police arrived on the scene
Was at 3am, most asleep!

Question 7

What did Latane and Darley argue in contrast to the contemporary popular belief about he;ping

Answer 7

The presence of other people sometimes makes helping LESS likely

Question 8

What does Latane and Darley’s model (1970) of bystander intervention suggest about helping

Answer 8

Helping is not a direct response to an emergency but requires the helper to make a series of successive decisions, several of which may be influenced by other people

Question 9

What is Latane and Darley (1970)’s 5-step decision making model of bystander intervention

Answer 9

MUST BE

1) High awareness of event
2) Interpretation of event as emergency
3) Personal responsibility
4) Mode of assistance available (can I help?)
5) Implementing the intervention

Question 10

What is the procedure for Latane and Darley’s (1968) smoke experiment

Answer 10

Ppts recruited for study of ‘problems of urban life’ filled out questionnaires either alone or in groups of 3
Simulated smoke was pumped into the room through an air vent
Investigators recorded how long ppts took to notice the smoke and to go get help

Question 11

Latane and Darley’s (1968) smoke experiment- results, how did presence of others affect noticing the emergency (STAGE 1 of model)

Answer 11

63% of ppts noticed the smoke within 5secs when aloen

26% of ppts noticed the smoke within 5secs when waiting with others

Question 12

Latane and Darley’s (1968) smoke experiment- results,why are we less likely to notice an emergency when with others

Answer 12

Constraints we feel in public places
We scan our environment more when noone is around
Subjects in groups didn’t want to appear rude and inquisitive

Question 13

Latane and Darley’s (1968) smoke experiment- results, what was the behaviour of ppts reporting smoke when alone

Answer 13

Quick to react, 50% within 2 mins, in total above 70%

Question 14

Latane and Darley’s (1968) smoke experiment- results,what was the behavior of ppts reporting smoke when with 3 naive participant

Answer 14

Initially only around 15% reacted, in total around 40% reaction

Question 15

Latane and Darley’s (1968) smoke experiment- results,what was the behaviour of ppts reporting smoke when with 2 passive confederates

Answer 15

Only 10% reacted within 2 mins, after this reaction did not rise

Question 16

What is pluralistic ignorance

Answer 16

Latane and Darley (1968)- the presence of other people may make it less likely than an ambiguous situation is interpreted as an emergency
If everyone is looking around and trying to appear calm while gauging the reactions of others, everyone will appear calm and noone will conclude the situation is an emergency

Question 17

Latane and Darley (1970)’s 5-step decision making model of bystander intervention- how does the presence of other people reduce people’s sense of personal responsibility (STAGE 3)

Answer 17

The presence of others makes it less likely that each of them takes personal responsibility for intervening, so they are less likely to
If someone was alone, help must come from them, so they have personal responsibility

Question 18

Darley and Latane’s (1968) seizure experiment, setting up scenario

Answer 18

Ppts recruited for discussion of personal problems of college life
Ppts talk from seperate cubicles using an intercom system, taking turns with their mic only operating for a fixed 2 min period
In reality, all problems were prerecorded except the genuine ppts

Question 19

Darley and Latane’s (1968) seizure experiment, why were the mics only turned on for fixed periods one person at a time

Answer 19

Prevents ppts discussing with each other whether they should intervene or who should intervene

Question 20

Darley and Latane’s (1968) seizure experiment, what happened in the experiment

Answer 20

First speaker talked abuot problems, mentioned his proneness to seizures
On their second turn, this speaker started out calmly then grew increasingly loud and incoherent- asking for help, choking noises, saying they’re going to die then silence

Question 21

Darley and Latane’s (1968) seizure experiment, what were the 3 conditions

Answer 21

2 person group- discussion involved seizure man and real participant
3 person group- discussion involved one other (fake) participant
6 person group- discussion involved 4 other (fake) ppts

Question 22

Darley and Latane’s (1968) seizure experiment- results, what % of ppts intervened before the victim’s mic cut off in each condition

Answer 22

2 person- Around 85%
3 person- Around 60%
6 person- Around 30%

Question 23

Why might the presence of others prevent someone from implementing an intervention and helping (STAGE 5)

Answer 23

Latane and Darley (1976)- evaluation apprehension. Bystanders worry about other people’s reactions if helping goes wrong

Question 24

How did Latane and Darley (1976) test evaluation apprehension (STAGE 5)

Answer 24

Manipulated whether ppts were alone and whether they could see/be seen by a bystander when witnessing a victim receive an electric shock over CCTV- help was offered least in bystander condition

Question 25

Man U study 1 into effect of social identity on helping- procedure

Answer 25

Levinr et al (2005)- Man U supporters wrote about how strongly they supported their team and completed a questionnaire about their level of group identification to raise the salience of their social identity as a Man U supporter Then walked across to another building and saw a jogger trip and fall, clutching their ankle in pain

Question 26

Man U study 1 into effect of social identity on helping- 3 conditions of procedure

Answer 26

Levine et al (2005)- jogger who fell was wearing 1 of 3 possible shirts 1)Man U shirt (ingroup) 2) Liverpool shirt (outgroup) 3) Red shirt (neutral)

Question 27

Man U study 1 into effect of social identity on helping- results

Answer 27

Jogger in Man U shirt- around 90% helped | In Liverpool shirt or neutral- around 30% helped

Question 28

Man U study 2 into effect of social identity on helping- procedure of this second study

Answer 28

Levine et al (2005)- Man U supporters told the study involved focusing on positive aspects of being a football fan Ppts wrote about how much they enjoyed footbal and did a questionnaire about their level of identification with football fans in general Then witnessed the same accident as ppts in study 1

Question 29

Man U study 2 into effect of social identity on helping- results

Answer 29

Man U shirt helped slightly more than Liverpool shirt, but both helped way more than neutral shirt Ingroup bias for football fans instead

Question 30

Man U study into effect of social identity on helping- conclusions of experiment

Answer 30

Sharing a social identity increases likelihood of helping, but which social identity is salient can be manipulated to increase the prospects of individuals helping people they may not otherwise

Question 31

3 possible motives for helping

Answer 31

Social consequences, personal consequences, altruism

Question 32

Possible motives for helping- social consequences

Answer 32

Gratitude, congratulation, reduced disapproval (from victim and onlookers)

Question 33

Possible motives for helping- personal consequences

Answer 33

Increased self-esteem, satisfaction, removal of unpleasant feelings (eg physiological arousal) associated with seeing someone else's suffering (Cialdini et al, 1981)

Question 34

Possible motives for helping- altriusm

Answer 34

Helping for its own sake (Batson, 1991), wanting the other person to be in a better situation

Question 35

Batson et al (1981) quote about when helping is altruistic

Answer 35

'altruistically motivated helping is directed toward the end-state goal of increasing the other's welfare' (p291)

Question 36

What should be the effect of reducing personal costs of watching suffering

Answer 36

If helping is motivated by desire to reduce personal costs, reducing these costs should decrease helping If helping is altruistically motivated, reducing personal costs should not affect helping (Batson et al, 1981)

Question 37

Batson et al, 1981 Elaine experiment- procedure

Answer 37

Female ppts told their co-ppt 'Elaine' had been assigned to receive random electric shocks during 10 trials of a performance task Ppts watch Elaine show negative responses during her first 2 trials, and tell the experimenter she had a childhood incident with an electric fence Experimenter offered ppt the chance to trade places with Elaine for final 8 trials

Question 38

Batson et al, 1981 Elaine experiment-manipulated variables of procedure

Answer 38

Ease of escape- ppts told they would observe Elaine over CCTV for either 2 of her trials or all 10 Similarity- ppts shown a questionnaire indicating Elaine had similar or different interests/values to theirs

Question 39

Batson et al, 1981 Elaine experiment-what is the aim of the study

Answer 39

To test whether helping is motivated by egocentric motives ie not wanting to witness suffering, or altruistic motives

Question 40

Batson et al, 1981 Elaine experiment-results in dissimilar condition

Answer 40

Ppts much more likely to help when they have to watch Elaine suffering, suggesting their helping is motivated by stopping their discomfort of watching someone in pain

Question 41

Batson et al, 1981 Elaine experiment- results in similar condition

Answer 41

Helping is generally higher, ppts still help a lot even when they don't have to view Elaine's suffering to aren't experiencing discomfort Suggests this helping is altruistically motivated, they care about how Elaine feels

Question 42

What is Batson et al (1981)'s empathy-altriusm hypothesis- HIGH EMPATHY

Answer 42

Altruistic motivation, helping whether or not there is an escape alternative

Question 43

What is Batson et al (1981)'s empathy-altriusm hypothesis- LOW EMPATHY

Answer 43

Egoistic motivation, helping if there is no escape alternative but escape if there is an escape alternative

Question 44

What is Cialdini et al (1987)'s negative-state-relief model

Answer 44

Person observes a suffering victim Person feels negative emotion Person helps to alleviate their own sadness (unless it is alleviated in another way)

Question 45

How did Cialdini et al (1987) criticse Batson et al's (1981) interpretation of their results

Answer 45

Cialdini argued Batson's findings reflected increased sadness when participants empathize with victims

Question 46

Cialdini et al (1987) mood-fixing study- procedure

Answer 46

Ppts heard a radio story about a student who had broken her legs and needed help going over lecture notes Ppts were give a placebo drug that supposedly affected information processing Pts reported how many hours of study support they were willing to provide the victim

Question 47

Cialdini et al (1987) mood-fixing study- manipulated variables

Answer 47

Empathy- ppts instructed to adopt either an objective (low-empathy) or imagine-other (high empathy) perspective while listening Mood fixing- one group was told the drug had the side effect of fixing their mood to its current state (so helping would not make them feel better)

Question 48

Cialdini et al (1987) mood-fixing study- results, low empathy vs high empathy condtion

Answer 48

Hours of help offered was higher in the high empathy condition

Question 49

Cialdini et al (1987) mood-fixing study- results, control vs mood fixed

Answer 49

When participants believe their mood is fixed, even when empathizing with a student, they don't help them as much as they think their mood will not go up Cialdini- helping is motivated by making yourself feel better

Question 50

Why does people feeling better after helping others not mean helping is a selfish act

Answer 50

The fact people feel better after helping implies they care about other people's feelings in any case Feeling better may be a byproduct not the main goal

Question 51

Study into whether knowldge of the bystander effect affects helpign

Answer 51

Beaman et al (1978)- ppts who watched a film about Latane and Darley's research were much more likely to offer help to a confederate sprawled against a wall 11-17 days afterwards than those who learnt about an unrelated social psychological topic

Question 52

Latane and Darley's (1968) smoke experiment- in what way were postexperimental interviews were the smoke was mentioned consistent

Answer 52

Most thought the smoke looked 'strange', wasn't sure if it was dangerous but felt it was unusual enough to justify some expectation

Question 53

Latane and Darley's (1968) smoke experiment- what did subjects who did not report the smoke say about it

Answer 53

They rejected the idea it was a fire and suggested a variety of alternative non-dangerous explanations eg steam, air conditioning vapours, 'truth gas', 'it must be some sort of experiment' Thought there was no reason to act

Question 54

Latane and Darley's (1968) smoke experiment- what did particpants claim about the effect of the presence of others

Answer 54

Claimed they had paid little/no attention to the other people in the room, unaware/unwilling to admit how the presence of others had affected their behavior

Question 55

What does Levine et al (2008) propose the classic bystander effect is produced by

Answer 55

'Absense of a group-level psychological relationship amongst bystanders which might provide prosocial norms and values, cohesion, or a sense of collective efficacy'

Question 56

What do Levine et al (2008) argue is the effect of increasing group size on helping in friendship groups

Answer 56

Promotes increased social cohesion, increases the likelihood of bystander intervention if social norms favour helping

Question 57

What may explain the different in effect of outgroup bystaders between men and women in Levine et al (2008's)

Answer 57

Eagly and Crowley (1986)- sex role stereotypes Size and direction of sex differences is a product of situational variables that determine what social roles are salient in particular situations

Question 58

Application of Eagly and Crowley's (1986) work on sex role stereotypes to Levine et al (2008)

Answer 58

When the male was with female bystaders, it created conditions for social norm of male, heroic intervetion in short-term emergency situations When the female was with male bystanders, she defers to this stereotype, so is less likely to intervene herself

Question 59

Levine et al (2008)- effect of group size for females

Answer 59

Female participants more likely to intervene in all-female group condition than when alone In group condition, female ppts less likely to intervene when with 2 male ppts compared to an all-female group or a male minority group

Question 60

Levine et al (2008)- effect of group size for males

Answer 60

Male ppts not significantly more likely to intervene in all male group condition than when alone In group condition, males more likely to intervene when they were in a majority female group, than when in an all male group or a female minority group

Question 61

Levine et al (2008)- what affects helping when the social cateory membership of bystanders and victim is consonant

Answer 61

Group size and social category membership encourage intervention, due to the importance of the inclusivity of group boundaries and the norm of helping ingroup members in need

Question 62

Levine et al (2008)- what affects helping when fellow bystanders are not ingroup members

Answer 62

Other situation specific norms can be invoked that shape bystander response eg when gender identity is salient, the predominant role is the male sex role stereotype of heroic itnervention

Question 63

Levine et al (2008)- what did ppts witness in the study

Answer 63

Participants witness a video of 'CCTV footage' of male-on-female violence

Question 64

How does Batson (1981) explain the logistics of an act being purely altruistic even if one's welfare is increased?

Answer 64

Increasing the other's welfare is necessary and sufficient to attain an altruistic state goal, an end in itself For an act to be altruistic, personal gain must be an unintended by-product and not the goal of helping

Question 65

Batson (1981) Elaine- how did manipulating similarity also affect ppts' perception of Elaine

Answer 65

Increased her perceived attractiveness and liking

Question 66

Batson (1981) Elaine, what secondary study was conducted

Answer 66

Empathetic emotion was manipulated more directly using misattribution of dissonance arousal- subjects are induced to misattribute either their feeling of empathetic concern or personal distress to some other source eg placebo, so perceive their response to be predominated by the other

Question 67

Batson (1981) Elaine, results of second study

Answer 67

Participnts who attribute their feelings of personal distress to a placebo perceive their own response to be predominantly empathetic concern, and help no matter how easy escape is Consistent with other study

Question 68

Study showing how robust the 'bystander effect' is as a finding

Answer 68

Latane and Nida (1981) metanalysis- the 'bystander effect' is one of the most robust findings in social psychology

Question 69

Why does Cherry (1996) criticise the focus of experimental analysis of Kitty Genovese's murder

Answer 69

The gendered aspect of the violence was overlooked by researchers at the time, as society was not sensitive to the social problem of male-on-female violence They therefore are 'culturally embedded theorising' as they ignored the culturally unavailable issues

Question 70

What idea lies at the heart of why bystander research has failed to prove practically valid (Smith and Haslam, 2012)

Answer 70

The persisting negative image of the group, that means people automatically assume the problem is how to overcome the shortcomings of the group

Question 71

What is social identity approach

Answer 71

Haslam, 2004- when people define themselves as part of a particular social group, the norms and values associated with that social identity determine the individual's behaviour

Question 72

Haslam's (2004) social identity approach- what affects the effect of the presence of others on behaviour

Answer 72

Whether a personal or social identity is salient, the extent to which the salient identity is shared by those present, and what the norms and values of that identity are

Question 73

What study evidences Haslam (2004)'s social identity approach

Answer 73

Levine et al (2008)'s studies manipulating the salience of social identities and the no of bystanders witnessing an attack by a man on a woman

Question 74

In what types of situation does the bystander effect not hold?

Answer 74

In situations of high potential danger for both victim and bystanders (Fischer et al, 2006)

Question 75

What is evaluation apprehension particularly strong

Answer 75

When bystander have low self-efficacy, the presence of others may facilitate helping when a bystander feels they are competent to help (Schwartz and Gottlieb, 1976)

Question 76

What are Piliavin et al (1969)'s 'subway train studies'

Answer 76

Involve staged incidents on subway trains where a 'victim' collapses in a subway car and intervention rates are observed

Question 77

How do Piliavin's et al (1960) studies challenge the bystander effect

Answer 77

Helping is often at ceiling level regardless of the no of people present, no strong relationship between no of bystanders and speed/likelihood of help

Question 78

How do Piliavin's et al (1960) studies support Haslam's (2004) social identity approach

Answer 78

There was a greater tendency for black individuals to help black victims, white individuals to help white victims

Question 79

What is Piliavin et al's (1981) original model of emergency intervention

Answer 79

The cost-reward model

Question 80

What are the 2 major components of Piliavin et al's (1981) original cost-reward model of emergency intervention

Answer 80

Central motivational component of vicarious arousal and a cognitive decision-making component component involving calculating costs and rewards of actions Situational factors determine whether arousal is stimulated

Question 81

What additional constructs are present in Piliavin's et al revised cost-reward model (1981)

Answer 81

Cyclical effects, bystander and victim characteristics, whether costs are attented to, role of empathy as a form of arousal and 'we-ness'

Question 82

Piliavin's et al revised cost-reward model (1981) add constructs- cyclical effects

Answer 82

Processes can occur cyclically rather than in a sequence

Question 83

Piliavin's et al revised cost-reward model (1981) add constructs- bystander and victim characteristics

Answer 83

Bystander characteristics includes competence and personal norms, victim characteristics eg similarity to victim

Question 84

Piliavin's et al revised cost-reward model (1981) add constructs- whether costs are attended to

Answer 84

eg in some emergency situations immediate impulsive helping may occur where the bystander's attention is completely focused on the victim (eg clarity of situation, prior knowledge of victim), and no conscious-decision making is involved

Question 85

Piliavin's et al revised cost-reward model (1981) add constructs- role of empathy as a form of arousal and 'we-ness'

Answer 85

'We-ness' increases likelihood of intervention as it increases the benefits and decreases costs of helping, and increases bystander arousal- helping victims perceived as 'we-group' is innate

Question 86

Piliavin et al's (1981) original cost-reward model of emergency intervention- what may the response to the emergency be

Answer 86

Direct or indirect intervention, escape, or reinterpretation of the situation

Question 87

Study supporting mechanisms behind helping outgroups in WW2

Answer 87

Reicher et al (2006)- analysed key documents of resistance to Nazi demands of the deportation of Jews, found the 2 main strategies used were ingroup inclusion (Jews were Bulgarians too) and ingroups norms (Bulgarian values)

Question 88

Study showing the motivations of different volunteer workers

Answer 88

Sturmer et al (2006)- social identity relationships moderate empathy-motivated helping at at AIDS charity Empathy with the client was a strong predictor of helping in homosexual volunteers, while liking was a strong predictor of help in heterosexual volunteers

Question 89

Study showing effect of bystanders in violent emergencies

Answer 89

Harari et al (1985)- 'attempted rape' staged on a university campus...more participants in groups intervened than participants who were alone, and most were direct rather than alerting a campus security officer

Question 90

Court transcript study arguing against the 5 step cognitive decision making model

Answer 90

Levine (1999) argued the 38 witnesses of the abduction that preceded the murder of 2yo James Bulger saw that James was injured, thought intervention might be needed, and their failure to act can't be explained in terms of diffusion of responsibility/pluralistic ignorance

Question 91

Why did the witnesses fail to intervene in the Levine (1999) study of James Bulger's court trascript

Answer 91

They assumed James was the boys' brother, making it psychologically difficult for them to act due to the invocation of 'the family' as the category dominating bystander interaction (strangers should not become involved with children from other families), rather than the categories of adults and children

Question 92

What did Eagly and Crowley (1986) argue are the characteristics of female gendered helping behaviours

Answer 92

More frequent in long-term close relationships like caring for the personal and emotional needs of others, delivering routine forms of personal service etc

Question 93

What did Eagly and Crowley (1986) argue are the characteristics of male gendered helping behaviours

Answer 93

Non-routine risky acts of rescuing others that often feature in bystander effect studies- this is why the rate of helping by men is seen as higher

Question 94

What does work from long-term helping behaviour draw from

Answer 94

``` Identity theory (Stryker, 1980)- we have different role identities which make up the self and relate to behaviour The more a person voluntarily performs a particular role, the more likely it is their identity will develop in relation to the behaviours involved in that performance ```

Question 95

Study showing a model of donation based on identity theory

Answer 95

Lee et al (1999)- perceived expectations, parental modelling, personal norms, past behaviour and role-identity as a donor all predict intention to donate

Question 96

What is the volunteer process model

Answer 96

Omoto and Snyder (2010)- the antecedents, experiences and consequences of volunteer behaviour operate at different levels- individual, interpersonal, organisational and societal

Question 97

What personality and dispositional factors, as well as motivational factors predict involvement in volunteering

Answer 97

Empathetic concern, concern for community (Omoto and Snyder, 1993)

Question 98

How does long term involvement in volunteering increase prosocial action

Answer 98

Omoto and Snyder (2010)- as volunteers become increasingly connected to a community of shared concerns, this sense of community motivates more volunteerism, as well as greater psychological health

Question 99

What is the Prosocial Personality Battery (PSB)

Answer 99

Penner et al (1995)- comprised of the factors other-oriented empathy and helpfulness

Question 100

Research supporting the Prosocial Persoanlity Battery (1995)

Answer 100

Penner (2002)- many behaviours correlate with the other-oriented empathy and helpfulness factors of the PSB eg speed of response in simulated emergencies, frequency of everyday helping acts, willingness to be an organ donor etc

Question 101

What is the public goods game

Answer 101

3+ individuals anonymously play a game where they can reward points to themselves or a common account that would benefit everyone

Question 102

What are the behaviours exhibited in the public goods game

Answer 102

Selfish behaviour is punished even when the punsihment hurts the punisher eg giving up money or paying a fine to ensure the selfish player loses money- altruistic punishment (Fehr and Gachter, 2002)

Question 103

What is the purpose of altruistic punishment

Answer 103

A form of helping, as it dissuades individuals from behaving selfishly and contributes to the maintenance of cooperation and promoting group interest

Question 104

What do Fehr and Gachter (2002) argue altruistic punishment does not fit the principles of

Answer 104

Doesn't fit the principles of reciprocal altruism or reputation management, doesn't appear to be self-interested

Question 105

What is reciprocal altruism

Answer 105

Trivers (1971)- explains why we might help strangers or non-kin, may have been beneficial to incur the cost of helping IF there is an expectation the helped will help the helper back at a future date

Question 106

Study showing the fMRI data of seeing others being unfair in a public goods game

Answer 106

Sanfey et al (2003)- seeing others being unfair operates the bilateral insula, associated with negative emotional states like pain/distrust, the stronger the activation the more likely people are to reject an unfair offer

Question 107

Study showing the brain activity when giving to charity

Answer 107

Fehr and Camerer (2007)- activation in reward-related brain areas related to positive social or financial rewards eg striatum, suggesting altruism has its own intrinsic rewards

Question 108

Study showing the fMRI data of football fans offering/withholding help from ingroup/outgroup members- activation when helping an ingroup member

Answer 108

Hein et al (2010)- willingness to help an ingroup member related to activation in anterior brain region central to empathy related brain responses)

Question 109

Study showing the fMRI data of football fans offering/withholding help from ingroup/outgroup members- activation when not helping an outgroup member

Answer 109

Hein et al (2010) Not helping the outgroup member predicted by activation in the nucleus accumbens, associated with pleasure from the misfortune of others, suggesting processing in a reward-related manner

Question 110

Helping behaviour on the Titanic vs Lusitania- Titanic

Answer 110

Frey et al (2010)- children were more likely to survive than adults, women more likely than men There was a fair amount of time after the original shock of the emergency, so social norms reestablished themeslves (eg women and children first)

Question 111

Helping behaviour on the Titanic vs Lusitania- Lusitania

Answer 111

Frey et al (2010)- adults more likely to survive than childre, men more likely than women There was no time following shock of emergency, causing more self-interested and selfish behaviour predominated

Question 112

What do the different helping behaviours on the Titanic vs Lusitania suggest

Answer 112

Responses to emergencies can be shaped by social norms rather than panic, normative behaviour can become strongly established if time allows