NA Notes

Question 1

What are the specific Native American political rights

Answer 1

• Right to land and reservations
• Right to tribal sovereignty
• Right to citizenship

Question 2

What are the specific Native American social rights

Answer 2

• Perception and racism
• Religious freedom
• Assimilation and acceptance
• Social effects of reservation policy

Question 3

What are the specific Native American economic rights

Answer 3

• Job opportunities and training
• Land rights
• Enterprise and innovation

Question 4

Political rights in 1865

Answer 4

• Not classed as US citizens
• Subject to tribal laws
• From NA point of view, this was what they wanted

Question 5

Social rights in 1865

Answer 5

• Plain wars between 1862 and 1868

- Buffalo war, threat to nomadic liefstyle

Question 6

Economic/Land rights in 1865

Answer 6

• Homestead Act of 1862- Loss of land had already begun- The act brought 20,000 settlers to the plains

Question 7

Political rights in 1992

Answer 7

• NAs are fully integrated into American society

Question 8

Social rights in 1992

Answer 8

• By 1992, their culture had been completely changed and violent protests at the end of period with ‘Red Power’ aimed to restore and give pride to some of their lost cultures.
• With the help of the self-determination policy from 1968, NA culture was celebrated by the end of the period

Question 9

Economic rights in 1992

Answer 9

• By 1990, ⅔rds of NAs were living in urban areas
• Mean income is ½ that of the national average
• Movement towards self-sufficiency

Question 10

Dawes Act as a turning point for political rights

Answer 10

2

• 1887 Dawes Severalty Act
• Divided Reservations into allotments
• Offered the opportunity for Native Americans to become full American citizens
• This would grant them voting rights and political representation in government
• Previously in reservations, they were either self-governing or independent nations whereas now they are “wards” of the federal government
• Self-determination moved from tribal to individual

BUT: Whilst this represents a change in the political rights of Native Americans, there was very little improvement as they did not want assimilation

Judgement:
The initiation of the process of assimilation under the Dawes Act marks a significant turning point in their political rights due to its extremity and widespread effect

Question 11

Gilded Age as a turning point for politcial rights

Answer 11

• Reservations in 1890 had their own courts where minor crimes were tried with Indian judges

BUT: No progression in their political rights
BUT: Ex Parte Crow Dog 1885 - disallows “major crimes” to be tried in NA courts (upheld by US v Kagama 1886)
BUT: 1898- Curtis Act extends allotments to the 5 civilised tribes who had previously objected to the Dawes Act
BUT: 1884: Elks vs. Wilkins- NA’s lost the right to determine whether or not they were citizens and US now had full power of NA’s on or off the reservations.
BUT: 1871- Indians had previously been making treaties with the government to decide reservations. This right was taken away with the Indian Appropriation Act, where decisions on reservations were now decided by Congress unilaterally.

Question 12

Citizenship Act as a turning point for political rights

Answer 12

4
Citizenship Act 1924
- Aimed to continue the policy of assimilation
- As citizens of the United States, all Indians now possessed the theoretical right to vote enshrined in the Fifteenth Amendment of February 1870

BUT: Even with the passage of the 1924 Indian Citizenship Act, it still took almost 40 years before all 50 states allowed Native Americans to vote
BUT: Some states employed similar mechanisms to those which prevented African Americans from voting: poll tax restrictions, literacy tests, fraud and intimidation etc. NAs could not vote in New Mexico until 1962
BUT: ⅔ of Native Americans already had citizenship (Estimated 175,000 out of 300,000)

Judgement:
- Little change in federal policy, still an attempt to speed up assimilation

Question 13

New Deal as a turning point for political rights

Answer 13

3
- Indian Reorganisation Act 1934 + New Deal
- Aimed to reinstate self determination but actually just continued policy of assimilation as whites still had control over reservations
- Brought a great deal of autonomy by bringing back tribal councils
- IRA extended political rights to Native American women
- New Deal meant NAs could now be recognised as semi-sovereign peoples, as well as giving authority to their tribal councils and allowing them new Constitutions. BUT: Tribal council’s’ actions were scrutinised by the Secretary of the Interior and many Indians had no part in writing the new Constitutions
- Also provided a greater role in administering their reservations and also saw the establishment of corporations on the reservations to ensure resources were better managed
BUT: Whites still believed they knew what was best for Native Americans
BUT: Faced opposition from Congress and NAs themselves
BUT: Funding used to improve their lives with the IRA was directed towards WW2 when it came
BUT: Whites still had control over NAs

Question 14

WW2 as a turning point for NA politcial rights

Answer 14

5
WW2
- Nationalities Act October 1940- Citizenship granted to all NAs without impairing tribal authority
- Increased self-determination.
BUT: Process of urbanisation meant that tribal self-determination was being lost through the dispersion of tribes

• President Roosevelt introduced the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) in 1944
• Aimed to further integrate Native Americans into American society
• The 50 tribes that were part of this congress in 1944 could elect a leader to represent them at a national convention
  BUT: NCAI was represented by ⅔ educated NA’s and ⅓ from reservations which was an inaccurate representation of the poverty in NA society
  BUT: Had no impact on Termination, which was one of its aims

Termination
Ended recognition of Native American tribes and abolished the remaining treaty rights they had left

J: Increased assimilation

Question 15

AIM and the 1960s and 70s as a TP for politcial rights

Answer 15

1
American Indian Movement (AIM)
- This movement aimed to reinstate political powers as well as total freedom to practice traditional cultures and social practices.

Presidency of Nixon
- First policy where the views of the NA’s are considered as it finds a balance between leaving the NA’s to develop themselves and falling into poverty and causing them to rely upon much of the fed. Gov. that they fall back into poverty as well. (No longer unilateral)
-NA’s given right to control and operate federal policies
- 1975- “Indian self-determination and education assistance act” passed by Congress allows tribes to negotiate contracts with BIA over ownership of education, health and social services, which recognises their right to self-determination by increasing assisted independence.
The Act is originally Nixon’s idea, but passed in the Presidency of Ford
- Change from assimilation as it is recognised that it is no longer needed
- NA’s are listened to for the first time in terms of what they want.
- Prioritises autonomy and independence.
- Greater self-determination.
BUT: Policies are less ambitious and more conservative

Judgement:
- Most significant turning point because it is the first time in the period where NAs are given some control over their right to self-determination

Question 16

Dawes Act as a Turning point for Social Rights

Answer 16

2

• 1887 Dawes Severalty Act
• Marked the official beginning of an assimilation process that lasted almost 100 years
• Completely restructured their social systems and culture
• Matriarchal structures abandoned
• Polygamy was forbidden
• Aim to eliminate culture and traditions was spearheaded by the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania which set out to educate Indian children into becoming English-speaking, Christian Americans

Judgement:

• Much more radical than before
• Still continuation of Americanisation
• Alternatively, it can be suggested that this policy change merely softened federal policy which continued to be hostile to Native American autonomy.

Question 17

Impacts of the Gilded Age on Social Rights

Answer 17

• A radical shift in lifestyle
• Buffalo War between 1873 and 1874- Eradication of their nomadic lifestyle
• NAs performed the ‘Sioux Ghost Dance’ in an attempt to regain their lost way of life- Although it did unite NA’s it led to Massacre at Wounded Knee.
• 1890 Massacre at Wounded Knee and the final destruction of the Sioux with the deaths of 200 unarmed Sioux tribal men- “a people’s dream died there”- Ended military opposition

Question 18

Indian Citizenship Act/ WW1 and 1920s as a TP for social rights

Answer 18

4
Indian Citizenship Act 1924
- Enacted to aid the process of assimilation into mainstream American society
BUT: Continuation of the policies that had started in the 19th Century
BUT: White Americans evidently still not willing to accept this assimilationist policy as they were barred from voting in at least 1 state for almost 40 years
Judgement:
- Not significant for their social and cultural rights as their culture was continually being eroded and the policy of assimilation was continuing

1920s + WW1:
- Approx. 10,000 NA men went to fight in the war and gained recognition by the government for their bravery
- Society of American Indians (Est. 1911) had tried to improve education and healthcare for Native Americans but by 1924 they had accepted the policy of assimilation
- 1923 “Dance Order”- Disallowed pueblo groups from practising traditional dances
- AIDA was formed as a consequence in 1923
Fought to protect religious freedoms and tribal property for Native Americans
Helped to block Leavitt Bill and Bursum Bill which threatened Native American land and culture

Question 19

New Deal and 1930s as a TP for social rights

Answer 19

3
Indian Reorganisation Act 1934:
- As Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Collier implemented a number of reforms with his most notable success being the IRA in 1934.
- The 1934 Indian Reorganization Act was the most relevant part of the New Deal for NA’s and was an attempt to preserve as much of the traditional Indian way of life as possible. In particular to make reservations a permanent, sovereign homeland
- A law from 1883 which banned ceremonial dances and celebrations is overthrown
- NA children were allowed to attend local schools and learn about NA culture
- Allowed use of the hallucinatory drug peyote for religious purposes
BUT: 75 out of 245 tribes rejected the measures of the IRA
BUT: Voting process via secret ballots was seen as the ‘white man’s culture’ being forced upon them
BUT: Policy of Termination largely reversed these reforms, hence not all that significant

Judgement:

• Indian New Deal of the 1930s was a major turning point, as it replaced forced assimilation with respect for Indian culture and customs
• But whilst it did reflect the first sign of a change in respect for the Indian, the policy of Termination meant it was short-lived

Question 20

WW2 and Termination as a TP for Social Rights

Answer 20

4
WW2:
- Most NA’s settled with Americanisation post war which completed the process of integration through urbanisation
- 100,000 Natives left their homesteads for the war
- Helped to improve public perception of NA culture
- NAs faced racism in the war
- NCAI was established to fully integrate NAs into American society
- Dramatically changed the lives of many Native Americans and Federal attitudes to them
- 25,000 Indians served in the armed forces and a further 40,000 worked in war-related industries, many of whom permanently relocated to the cities and sought to assimilate

Termination:
- Policy was introduced to speed up the assimilation process
- They lost their special protection as ‘wards’ of the federal government and were encouraged to move to cities and find jobs
- End of recognition of tribes and thus of tribal culture
BUT: A number of tribes lost their status but they were regained in 1972 under Nixon
By the end of Termination NAs had the highest rates of illiteracy, disease and unemployment
BUT: Small % who managed to urbanise were able to become middle-class by 1960s
BUT: 11,500 Indians lost their status as Indians
Those who did move to cities often established ghettos, which did at least help to preserve some traditional culture

Judgment:
- As with the IRA, impacts of these changes did not last when a sympathetic President in Nixon came in and showed distinct respect for NA culture

Question 21

AIM and Nixon Presidency as a TP for social rights

Answer 21

1
American Indian Movement (AIM):
- This movement aimed to reinstate political powers as well as total freedom to practice traditional cultures and social practices.
- The 1969 siege of Alcatraz creates huge press audience and large sympathy for the Native American cause amongst white americans until it is shut down by police in 1971.
- 1969 siege inspires other red power actions from youth groups
BUT: Some military success was shut down such as at Alcatraz in 1971 and the Wounded Knee in 1973.
BUT: The biggest area of gains was in public support yet there was little legal consequences of the NA protests and so all theoretical progress died with the military defeats.

Presidency of Nixon (1969 - 1974):

• Initiated a policy of Self-Determination
• 1972 Indian Education Act- Increased federal funding for Indian schools (Education n NA culture)
• 1978 Indian Religious Freedom Act - “preserve the inherent right of American Indians to believe, express and practice their traditional rights”
• 1986 Charrier vs. Bell- Supreme court ruling that protected NA burial grounds
• US v. Michigan → won the right to fish commercially without interference from the state

Judgement:
As such restored cultural rights and thus marked most significant Turning point
- Most significant as its the first period where there is arguably some sort of cohesion between a sympathetic government and an active NA population which led to a protection of their culture

Question 22

Dawes Act as a TP for Economic Rights

Answer 22

4
1887 Dawes Severalty Act:
- First development of legal land rights for NAs and opportunity for them to become landowners
- Each head of family was to receive 160 acres of farmland. Gained ownership after 25 years
BUT: Can be viewed as a continuation of a loss of Native American land
- 1887: 150 million acres of NA land recognised by the Fed
- 1900: 78 million acres of NA land recognised by the Fed
BUT: Many of the land received was poor quality and Natives lacked skills to farm it so ended up selling the land back to white settlers
In 1890 alone, 13 million acres of land was sold to white settlers

Judgement:
- Significant as a legal development for Native Americans but the worth of the land and progression of their rights as a result was minimal

Question 23

Impact of the Gilded Age on NA Economic rights

Answer 23

• Few examples of success: Navajo tribe
• They adapted quickly to farming after relocating in 1868 and gained 6.5 million acres of land by 1900
• 2 boarding schools set up, including Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania- Many went on to work in the BIA. BUT: These schools aimed educating NA children into white, Christian citizens

BUT: 1874- Gold was discovered in the Black Hills of Dakota and as such promises to Sioux were overturned from 2nd Fort Laramie Treaty
BUT: 1898 Curtis Act led to 2 million more acres of land being opened up for white development
BUT: By 1900, there were only 100,000 Native Americans left on the plains out of 240,000

Question 24

Citizenship Act 1924/ WW1/ 1920s as a TP for economic rights

Answer 24

5

• Represents assimilation policy
• Following the war and during the 1920s- Many went on to work in factories and urbanised
• They gained the experience of working beyond reservations. BUT: Reservations in Wisconsin and Minnesota- Native Americans lost 80% of their lands
• The American Indian Defense Association was formed in 1923 and blocked the Bursum Bill in 1922 which posed a threat as it would authorise the acquisition of Pueblo Lands

Judgment:
- Little impact on their land rights and few achieved decent standards of living following Urbanisation

Question 25

New Deal and 1930s as a TP for economic rights

Answer 25

3
Indian Reorganisation Act 1934:
- The Indian reorganisation act of 1934 stopped the sale of NA lands and recovered unallocated land which was used to expand reservations.
- Tribes added 2.1 million acres to their land base between 1935 and 1937
- Allotment policy was abandoned
- All land not yet sold was returned to tribal control and so their right to land was further heightened.
By 1950, average income for Blackfeet families was $2,639
- BUT: Reforms were a mere “drop in the ocean” to the scale of Native American problems
- BUT: Most of the land recovered had not been bought by white settlers because it was poor quality
- BUT: Annual budget of the BIA could not cope and as a result many Indians were left with insufficient healthcare/ housing

Judgement:
- The act was significant as a turning point for federal attitudes towards NA land as they started to gain it back

Question 26

WW2 and Termination as a TP for Economic rights

Answer 26

2
WW2:
- Many Native Americans made a decent living for the first time and got a sense of higher living standards
BUT: The war depleted Native Americans of their land and offered no reward
- As a result of Native American success in WW2, Congress set up the Indian claims commission in 1946 to regain lands granted by treaties that had been subsequently lost
- 370 claims filed within first few months
BUT: ICC worked slowly and generally offered financial compensation over land which NAs did not want
BUT: ICC was closed down by 1978

Termination 1953 - 1969:

• Change from Reorganization back to Assimilation
• Indian Vocational Training Act 1956- Introduced to provide work-related training to improve Native Americans’ employment prospects and speed up the process of assimilation
• Congress terminated assistance to over 100 tribes
• Ending recognition of treaty rights and attempting to lure Native Americans away from reservations with Voluntary Relocation Programmes
• BUT: Those who move to cities often found they were working in poorly paid jobs and living in worse conditions
• BUT: 50% returned to the reservations
• BUT: NA Unemployment rate was 18%
• BUT: Lost 1.4 million acres of trust land

Judgment:
Although the nature of Termination was radical, the extent of its influence was limited, since it only was imposed upon 3% of Native American tribes.
Furthermore, it was a continuity of loss of land initiated by Dawes Act
- Policy changed again under Nixon

Question 27

AIM and 1960s and 70s as a TP for economic rights

Answer 27

1
American Indian Movement (1968)
- Some sacred land was reoccupied such as the 1971 occupation of Mount Rushmore which reasserted ownership of sacred Sioux land in the Black hills of Dakota.
- Assisted land restoration
Also boosted economic position;
- Indian Education Act 1972- Increased federal funding for Indian schools and closed controversial boarding schools
- 1974 - Oneida v. Oneida and Madison Counties, New York
This Supreme Court ruling established the right of the Oneida tribe to sue for the return of their lands and opened the floodgate for land claims from other tribes
- Native American Rights Fund (NARF) was established in 1970
Aimed to reinstate tribal sovereignty, recover land and resource rights, recover right to unrestricted voting and the right to worship freely.
Recovered lost land for some tribes
E.g. Native people of Alaska in 1971 recover sovereignty over family law issues (1976 Fisher v Montana)

Judgement:
- Most important attempt at reinstating land rights for NAs

Question 28

Reagan Era as a TP for economic rights

Answer 28

• Inaugurated in 1981, Reagan advocated for “Native capitalism”
• Attempt to make Native Americans self-sufficient
• Attempting to reduce the government dependency of the Indians by allowing them to set up their own businesses
  They set up shops, factories and casinos
• BUT: Reagan’s aim was to reduce spending through market-based supply-side policies (Reaganomics)
• BUT: Included an 82% cut in economic development funds
• 1982- Seminole Tribe vs. Butterworth- Supreme Court ruled that the tribe had the right to establish gambling enterprises on reservation lands, regardless of state law
• 1988- The small Puyallup tribe accepts $162 million from the FG to resolve a long-standing land dispute
• Highlights change in federal attitudes and influence that activism from the Red Power movement may have had
• 1992- ⅔rds of Indians lived in urban areas
  BUT: By 1990, Indian median income was almost half of that of the nation as a whole and unemployment was higher among Indians than any other ethnic group

Judgement:
- Was significant as the attempt to make NAs self-sufficient had not been tried to this extent and provided them with a sustainable alternative to work in cities

Question 29

Main actions of NAs for Political rights

Answer 29

Fort Laramie Treaty 1868
Government can’t take land without ¾ of male agreement
BUT: This was undermined and undone by the Battle of Little Bighorn

Gladys Tantaquidgeon 1899 - 2005 (Woman)
Worked for BIA in 1930s and supported women’s cooperatives

NCAI 1944
80 educated Native Americans working together
Puts pressure on government for establishment of ICC in 1946

AIM 1968 and emergence of Red Power
Siege of Alcatraz - made ordinary Americans aware of Native plight and finally brought together different tribes
Arguably pressure they put on led to 1975 Indian self-determination and education assistance act
Made more of a headway due to Ford, Nixon and Carter’s sympathy to Native American needs

Louis R. Bruce Jr 1906- 1989
Mohawk tribe
Appointed to Commissioner of Indian Affairs by President Nixon
Sets up consultancy agencies for Indian organisations

NARF 1970
Native American Rights Fund set up by John EchoHawk to defend rights of NAs

Question 30

Federal Government For NA Political rights

Answer 30

• Dawes Act 1887- Citizenship and voting rights as a result
• FDR’s IRA 1934
• Nixon’s policy of self-determination
• 1924 Indian Citizenship Act
• Harrison v. Laveen 1948: Upheld Voting Rights

Question 31

White sympathy for NA political rights

Answer 31

Meriam report is published 1928:
Highlighted failures of the policy of land allotment and shortcomings of attempted assimilation of Indians into white society
As a result, the policies of allotment and assimilation were discontinued. It led to the amelioration of N.A conditions and a change of mindset.
Leads to Indian reorganisation act of 1934

1968 Fish-In:
Organised by NIYC, huge publicity (got celebrities like Jane Fonda) / 50% fisheries in the state secure rights & more industries, such as hatcheries, sprang up

Question 32

Supreme Court cases against NA politcial rights (5)

Answer 32

US v. Kagama 1886
Upholds Congress’ ability to use Major Crimes Act and punish Native Americans under US courts and not tribal courts
Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock 1903
Congress is given the right to abrogate (repeal or do away with) an NA treaty
US v. Sandoval 1913
Pueblo lands are “Indian country” and thus Congress has jurisdiction
Oliphant v. Suquamish tribe 1978
Tribes cannot hold jurisdiction over Non-Native Americans who committed crime on NA land
Elks vs. Wilkins 1884
NA’s lost the right to determine whether or not they were citizens and US now had full power of NA’s on or off the reservations.

Question 33

Presidents Against NA Political rights (4)

Answer 33

President Grant 1869 - 1877
1871- He made a decision to stop making treaties with NA tribes through the Indian Appropriation Act
Relocation of Native Americans was now done by the federal government without consultation of NAs

President Cleveland 1885 - 1889 and 1893 - 1897
Oversaw implementation of Dawes Act
BUT: Did offer opportunity for citizenship and a political voice as they were able to vote and have political representation in government

President Coolidge 1923 - 1929
Indian Citizenship Act 1924- Prevented Tribal Sovereignty

President Eisenhower 1953 - 1961
Disastrous H.R. 1063 not vetoed
This saw Congress cut ties with 109 tribes in 1953

Question 34

Examples of NA hinderance/ lack of action on Politcial rights

Answer 34

Siege of Alcatraz
Led to violence, which divided tribes further and alienated Native Americans from public support

NCAI
Court proceedings were slow and an expensive process

Question 35

Lack of white sympathy on NA politcial rights

Answer 35

• Did not consider if the wanted citizenship

- Government had paternalistic ‘back to the blanket’ attitude

Question 36

NA actions FOR social rights (4)

Answer 36

NCAI 1944:
50 tribes were involved expressing unity
Challenged discrimination and unequal education and employment

“Red Power” and AIM 1968:
Challenged discrimination which helped push many of the occupations
1969 Siege of Alcatraz
1971 Occupation of Mount Rushmore
1972 AIM takes over BIA
1973 Occupation of Wounded Knee
1975 Pine Ridge Reservation hear site of massacre of Wounded Knee. Conflict led to 1 protester and 2 FBI agents dead
1 member of AIM was found guilty but Appeals Court blamed authorities

Literature Movement:
E.g. Vine Deloria Jr.- Custer died for your sins
Dee Brown- Bury my heart at Wounded Knee

Society of American Indians (SAI) 1911:
First instance of Native American tribes coming together as a pressure group
Aimed to campaign for better education and healthcare
BUT: They achieved very little and were disbanded in the 1920s

Question 37

Lack of NA action on social rights

Answer 37

Society of American Indians 1911
Failed to secure healthcare and education improvements
Plain wars
Tribes not only fighting the government but also each other
Led to unfavourable treaties
- ‘Sioux Ghost Dance’ was a religious ritual in an attempt to regain their lost way of life- Although it did unite NA’s it led to Massacre at Wounded Knee.
- 1890 Massacre at Wounded Knee and the final destruction of the Sioux with the deaths of 200 unarmed Sioux tribal men- “a people’s dream died there”- Ended military opposition
Tribal Conflict - Tribes fighting each other as well as gov.
Violent Protest - 1972 seizure of the BIA had negative outcomes as $700,000 worth of damage incurred (inc. loss of treaties/deeds - counterproductive to aims) / Wounded Knee 1973 led to bloodshed & Dick Wilson’s ‘Reign of Terror’ (60 AIM supporters ‘died’)
Decline in culture - languages had died out / only ⅓ NAs on reservations re-established tribal life

Question 38

Presidents for NA social rights (7)

Answer 38

President Coolidge 1923 - 1929
Granted citizenship- Extended 15th Amendment to Native Americans
BUT: Not many wanted this

President Roosevelt 1933 - 1945
Indian Reorganisation Act and Rhoads reforms- End of boarding schools
Indian Reorganization Act overturned an 1883 law banning ceremonial dances
BUT: 75 out of 245 tribes rejected the measures of the IRA

President Johnson 1963-69
Indian Civil Rights Act 1968

President Nixon 1969 - 1974
“Self determination without termination”
This included an increase of the BIA budget by 200%
Native American Louis Bruce Jr became commissioner of Indian Affairs
Doubled funding for Native American healthcare- Indian Education Act of 1975

President Ford 1974 - 1977
Signed Indian Self-Determination Act 1975 and Indian Healthcare Act and declared 2nd week of October 1976 as NA awareness week

President Carter 1977 - 1981
Indian Religious Freedom Act
Indian Child Welfare Act 1978

President Bush 1989 - 1993 
Declared 1992 as the “Year of the American Indian” 
Signed the NA languages Act 1990 
Indian Arts and Crafts Act 
NA Graves Protection Act 1990

Question 39

Presidents Against Social Rights (2)

Answer 39

President Cleveland 1885 - 1889 and 1893 - 1897
Destroyed many aspects of Native American culture through the allotment policy (Dawes Act)
He had the aim of making Native Americans individual, while during the 1880s many died from disease, lack of food & shelter
Only 100,000 on reservations by 1900 out of the initial 240,000
He saw the rise of Richard Pratt’s Boarding Schools to “purge” Native American tribal ways and also ended matriarchal nature of many tribes (E.g. Iroquois)

President Eisenhower 1953 - 1961
Termination Policy
End of recognition of tribes and thus of tribal culture
BUT: Status of a number of tribes was regained under Nixon’s presidency
US Policy of Americanisation showed zero respect for NA culture

Question 40

Congress For and against Social Rights (4,2)

Answer 40

FOR:
Wheeler- Howard Act 1934
Overturned Religious Crimes Code
Gave Native Americans more resources for schools, hospitals, etc

Indian Civil Rights Act 1968
Equal Rights

Indian Education Assistance Act 1975
More funding and increased involvement of parents
Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act 1990

Protects the right of NAs to claim the remains of NAs held in universities, museums, etc.

AGAINST:
Religious Crimes Codes 1883
Banned all cultural/ ceremonial dances
Arguably led to massacre at Wounded Knee 1890 due to lack of awareness

“Dance Order” of 1923
Prohibited ritual dances
BUT: AIDA stopped 1926 Leavitt Bill which targeted Pueblas from being imposed

Question 41

Supreme Court cases for and against social rights (2,1)

Answer 41

FOR:
Fisher v. Montana 1976
Secures the right to tribal courts to decide on all cases relating to the adoption of Indian children

Charrier v Bell 1986
Establishes right of tribes to possession of all Indian remains dug from the ground in Louisiana

AGAINST:
Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association 1985
Court allowed a logging project which would adversely affect NA religious practices

Question 42

White sympathy for social rights

Answer 42

Meriam Report, Rhoads and Collier
Forms American Indian Defence Association and blocks Leavitt Bill in 1926
As Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Collier was influential in encouraging Roosevelt to implement the Indian Reorganization Act
Report shows poor conditions of NAs and raises awareness to the plight of NAs
- 1881: Helen Hunt Jackson- ‘A century of dishonour’- Publicised horrific government policy towards Native Americans and improved people’s knowledge of their cause
1968: Peter La Farge records “as long as the grass shall grow” protesting the abuse of Native Americans by white people
Brown publishes Bury Your Heart At Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West in 1970 raising awareness about the history of Native Americans
1990 Dances with Wolves is released, a film which positively represents the Lakota tribe, wins 7 academy awards

Question 43

“Lack of sympathy/ Percieved inferiority” as a factor against social rights

Answer 43

Indian Rights Association 1882:
Founded by Quakers, Catholics and Protestants aiming to “Civilise” and Christianise
BIA:
Very paternalistic
Especially pre NA appointed as head
BUT: Does give Native Americans a political voice
Nomadic Lifestyle - NAs worshipped nature, followed buffalo herds / By 1841 3m bison had been killed/ NAs stole food from wagons due to starvation / Unsettling removal of NAs from Plains to reservations (fishing tribes struggled, tribes into conflict)
Boarding Schools - set up to ‘kill the Indian & save the man’ / 10% of NA population in 25 off-reservation boarding schools / Treated badly / Forced to convert to Christianity
Stereotypes - Seen as lazy, alcoholic, villains (death rate of alcoholism from liver cirrhosis x3 of whites / NA men suicide rate 100x higher than white men )

Question 44

NA actions for economic rights (7)

Answer 44

Charles Rhoads 1920s and 30s
He was the first Native American to attempt to put reforms of Meriam Report in 1929

NCAI 1944
Led to creation of ICC

National Indian Youth Council (NIYC) 1961
Pressure group to help with “war on poverty” (President Johnson)
Hundreds of Native Americans were united in protest in 1964 against poverty
Younger generation behind much of the change in the 1960s/70s - inspired perhaps by Black Power

‘Fish in’ 1974
Occured in Washington state
Led to the decision that tribes were entitled to half of the salmon in Western Washington

Siege of Alcatraz 1969
10,000 Native Americans visited the island during its occupation
Offered to purchase Alcatraz for $24 (the same as the white settlers paid for Manhattan) and offered to give them education on their religion, culture and traditions so they could be “civilised” (Richard Oakes) to mirror what the white settlers had done
80 Native Americans were involved
Gained AIM recognition
Very important as NAs comprised of only 1% of the ballot box

Gladys Tantaquidgeon 1899 - 2000s
Attended University of Pennsylvania before working for the Indian Bureau in the 1930s

1986 Foxwoods Casino is founded
By 1994 boasts a gross yield of over $800 million and employed 10,000 workers

Question 45

“Inactivity of NA Groups & Inter-Tribal Rivalry” as a factor against economic rights

Answer 45

Occupation of Mount Rushmore 1971:
By Sioux tribe for Black Hills of Dakota
Ownership of land still disputed
Battle of Little Bighorn 1876:
Led to 22.8 million acres of land and Dakota Black Hills being taken away from NAs
Tribal nature:
Undermined their ability, across the period to work together and pressurise government to advance their CRs and made it much easier for government to take land and pursue their policies
Plain’s Wars: didn’t just fight the government, but also fought each other for the buffalo, would support the government over each other sometimes in order to protect their ability to keep their buffalo
World Wars - Some tribes e.g. Iroquois Tribe, objected, this was not their war
N.B. NAs were scattered across the country & made up a small force of the population (struggled to have unified movement)

Question 46

Presidents FOR NA economic rights (6)

Answer 46

President Roosevelt 1933 - 1945
Indian Reorganization Act

President Johnson 1963-69
National Council on Indian Opportunity established on Executive Order 11399

President Ford 1974 - 1977
Signed Indian Claims Commision
Appropriations legislation

President Nixon 1969 - 1974
Returned Blue Lake to Taos Pueblo
Signed Alaska Native claims settlement act which gave 44 million acres and $962.5 million of compensation to Alaska Natives
Signed 52 legislations to support sovereignty

President Carter 1977 - 1981
Signed Maine Indians Claims Settlement Act 1980
- Manifest destiny was upheld by Presidents between 1850 and 1871
- In this time they took 155 million acres of NA land

President Reagan 1981-89
Native Capitalism and Indian Economic self sufficiency
Encouraged Indians to stimulate their economies by creating small businesses
Leads to creation of casinos e.g. Foxwoods Resort Casino 1986:
By 1994 boasts a gross yield of over $800 million and employed 10,000 workers

Question 47

Presidents against NA economic rights (4)

Answer 47

President Cleveland 1885 - 1889 and 1893 - 1897:
Saw implementation of Dawes Act
This attempted to bring communal reservation life to and end by turning NAs into small independent farmers
Whilst this did provide the opportunity for land ownership as each head of the family was to receive 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing land for 25 years. If they stayed there for 25 years they would gain ownership of that land.
Land was very poor quality and the act led to the loss of 72 million acres of land in 13 years

President McKinley 1897 - 1901:
Extended Dawes to 5 civilised tribes though the Curtis Act in 1898 - This led to 2 million acres more land being opened up for white development

President Eisenhower 1953 - 1961:
Policy of Termination
BUT: Did set up the ICC

President Truman 1945 - 1953:
Continued policy of Termination

Question 48

Congress for economic rights (3)

Answer 48

NCAI 1944 able to put pressure on government

Dawes Act 1887:
Represents economic opportunity and self advancement for Natives by encouraging individualism and a pro-capitalist culture
Grants each head of the family 160 acres of land
Benefits the five civilised tribes and the Navajos tribe whose populations increased from 8,000 to 22,000 by 1990

Indian Claims Commission 1946 - 78:
Set up by Congress
Means by which natives could regain lands given to them in treaties of the 19th century
370 petitions filed however settlements often made financially rather than the actual return of land
BUT: Generally offered financial compensation rather than land

1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act
Affirmed right of tribes to conduct gaming on Indian Lands
Allowed for development of Reagan’s vision of ‘Native capitalism’ and a push towards self-sufficiency

Question 49

Congress against economic rights (2)

Answer 49

Indian Appropriations Act 1871
No Native American recognised as individual states
Much easier to take the lands

Indian Appropriations Act 1889
Opened unassigned lands to white settlers under tenets of the Homestead Act

Question 50

Supreme Court for economic rights (6)

Answer 50

California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians 1987
Indians can set up bingo houses on reservations

Seminole Nation v. US 1942
Government breached duty to tribes by continuing to pay Native Americans money when they knew it was being misspent

Oneida v. Oneida and Madison Counties, NY 1974
Increase in number of actions to reagin NA land

1974 Morton vs. Mancari
Effectively upholds affirmative action for employing in the BIA

Seminole v. Butterworth 1981
Can set up gambling enterprises on reservations

US v. Sioux Nation 1980
Gave sioux $17.5 million for Black Hills of Dakota with 5% interest since 1877 so $106 million extra
BUT: Sioux refused

Question 51

Supreme Court against economic rights (2)

Answer 51

Montana v. US 1981:
Crow tribe could not exclude non-Indians from fishing and hunting on reservation lands
This set a precedent to challenge NA control

US v. Sandoval 1913:
Prevented the sale of liquor on Pueblo lands and upheld that Congress had the ability to recognise and regulate tribes
Led them to losing much land in 1921 as they were deemed to not know how to govern it

Question 52

“Changing Perceptions and Growing Sympathy (Mass Media)” as a factor for economic rights

Answer 52

WW1 - Over 10,000 served in integrated units (sped up assimilation)
WW2 - NAs were citizens so could be drafted / 25,000 served / Tribalism motivated NAs
Meriam Report 1928 - Highlighted that NAs were most impoverished people in US

Question 53

“Lack of Sympathy & Perceived Inferiority” as a factor against economic rights

Answer 53

Transaction - Exchanged in bartering not currency
Westward Expansion - 1849 California Gold Rush meant rapid encroachment of whites / 1865 Union Pacific Railway disrupted NAs

In pursuit of economic growth:
Boom of the 1920s:
Led to more land of NAs being taken (In Wisconsin and Minnesota lost 80%)
1960s:
Exploitation of NA land for timber (500,000 acres in Wisconsin and Oregon is taken)