Native Americans Flashcards
(93 cards)
1
Q
What was the original Native American lifestyle
A
- Worshipped nature
- Nomadic
- Had their own tribal laws and governments
- Had their own languages
- Had their own cultures and ceremonies
2
Q
How many people moved out west in 1849?
A
300,000
3
Q
Why did people originally move out West?
A
Gold - discovered in 1848
4
Q
How did the government incentivise people to settle on the Great Plains?
A
The Homestead Act (1862) which gave people 160 acre plots of land for free on the basis that they would farm it for 5 years
5
Q
How many Homesteads had been taken by 1865
A
20,000
6
Q
How did white settlers threaten the Native American way of life?
A
The hunting of buffalo herds due to the building of railroads caused Native Americans to eventually become dependent on the government providing food
7
Q
What triggered the Plains Wars?
A
- Hunger; the US government stopped providing the Native Americans with food they had become dependent on, following the outbreak of the Civil War
- Broken treaties; the US signed a number of treaties compensating Natives for land they thought was desirable for White settlement which they broke later down the line
- Inexperienced soldiers; many of the soldiers that manned the outposts in the Great Plains were untrained, ill-disciplined and despited the indians
8
Q
Give 4 treaties that the Government signed with the Natives
A
- Fort Laramie Treaty (1851)
- Fort Wise Treaty (1861)
- Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867)
- Fort Laramie Treaty (1868)
9
Q
When were the Plains Wars?
A
1862-1868
10
Q
What was the underlying cause of the Plains Wars
A
Westward expansion - manifest destiny/gold rush
11
Q
Give 2 Wars in the Plains Wars
A
- Red Cloud’s War
- Little Crow’s War
12
Q
Name 2 Significant Battles in the Plains War
A
- Battle of Little Bighorn (1876)
- Battle of Wounded Knee (1890)
13
Q
What is the Background for the Battle of Little Bighorn?
A
- The Fort Laramie Treaty (1868) promised the Black Hills (South Dakota) to the Native Americans
- This was signed by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse
- However, General George Custer realised there was gold
- The Native Tribes of Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho refused to give up the Black Hills and gathered as a force under Sitting Bull
14
Q
Who were the 3 leaders in the Battle of Little Bighorn?
A
- General Custer
- Sitting Bull
- Crazy Horse
15
Q
What happened in the Battle of Little Bighorn
A
- Custer engaged with the Natives, and lost known as “Custer’s last stand
- The Natives suffered 26 casualties
- The US suffered 260 casualties
- General Custer died
16
Q
What was the result of the Battle of Little Bighorn
A
The US mobilised large forces of their military to subdue their villages across the north
17
Q
Why is the Battle of Little Bighorn significant
A
It is example of a broken promise between the US government and the Native Americans
18
Q
What was the legacy of the Plains wars?
A
- Slow and Deliberate erosion of traditional life
- Start of assimilation/reservation policy
- Broken promises led to distrust
- The new white settlers hunted the buffalo to near extinction leaving just 541 in 1889
19
Q
What happened at the Battle of Wounded Knee?
A
- A tribe led by Big Foot seeking help were surrounded by American Soldiers called in after their chief was sickly, and were all lined up and shot down by soldiers
- 250 Native Americans killed (including Sitting Bull)
- 30 US Soldiers were killed
- 19 American Soldiers granted the medal of honour
20
Q
In what 4 ways did the Government try to assimilate Native Americans?
A
- Reservation Policy
- Education (teaching them white values)
- Forced conversions to Christianity
- Dawes Act (made them into farmers)
21
Q
Give 4 things the Government outlawed as a part of assimilation which affected the Natives socially
A
- Polygamy
- Herbal remedies
- Braves demonstrating their skills
- Communal living
22
Q
Give 2 things the Government outlawed as a part of assimilation policy which affected the Natives politically
A
- The power of the tribal chief
- Tribal laws
23
Q
How can the reservation policy be seen as a good thing for Natives?
A
It allowed them to retain some of their tribal culture and customs, sense of belonging, and a pride in their shared heritage by essentially segregating them from the rest of the American Public
24
Q
How did the reservation’s policy impact Natives economically and socially?
A
- Disease wiped out the cattle that the Indians kept as a way of sustaining themselves since the Buffalo had been almost completely wiped out
- Epidemics like whooping cough, measles and influensa led to just 100,000 Natives left in 1900 of the original 240,000 that existed in 1860
- Native children were forced to boarding schools in an attempt to “Americanise” them; forcing them to renounce their previous culture
25
How did the boarding schools try to **Americanise** Native children?
Reshape the Natives into thinking their way, with their morals, and training them with skills in certain industries
26
Give 2 examples of boarding schools
1. Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute
2. Carlisle Indian Industrial School
27
Why were the boarding schools of 'dubious educational quality'?
- The school curriculum was limited
- Teachers brought in from the East could not handle conditions and left
- The language barrier proved to seriously hinder any progress
28
How did the reservations policy negatively impact Native employment
Few Natives were actually hired by Indian agency offices
29
How did assimilation provide Native American employment opportunities
- Interpreters to Indian Agents
- Scouts in the Army
30
When was the Indian Rights Association (IRA) founded?
1882
31
When was the Dawes Act?
1887
32
Why was the Dawes Act brought about?
It became clear that the **reservations policy was failing** as a means of **assimilating** and **detribalising** Natives
33
What were the terms of the Dawes Act?
- Families would be able to claim plots of land from reservations either **160** acres of farmland or **320** acres of grazing land
- After 25 years they would receive full ownership of the land
- All Native Americans farming allotted land were given full rights of **citizenship**
- Unalloted land would be made available to white Americans
34
What was the impact of the Dawes Act on Reservations?
Decreased them from **150 million acres** to **78 million acres** between 1887 and 1900
35
What were the social impacts of the the Dawes Act?
- Tribal structures were broken up as chiefs lost their influence
- Took away the unity of a tribe turning Plains Indians into individuals
- Led to widespread alcoholism to deal with the changes
- Forced to integrate into American life
36
What were the political impacts of the Dawes Act?
- Tribal lands were no longer protected by the US
- Indians were expected to officially become American citizens and would have no real rights otherwise
- Indian councils and chiefs no longer had any power
37
What were the economic impacts of the Dawes Act?
- They struggled to farm the new plots of land
- Much of the land was of such poor quality they had to sell it
- Many Indians refused to own the land they were given and sunk into poverty and illness
- Many Indians had to look for other work in order provide for their families
38
Give 4 reasons why Native Americans joined the WWI war effort
1. Maintain their warrior tradition
2. Demonstrate themselves to white people and receive more rights
3. Lack of job opportunities on reservations
4. Patriotism - felt American and wanted to defend their homeland
39
How were Native Americans rewarded for fighting in WWI?
Any Native American Soldiers who fought were given citizenship on November 6th 1919
40
What was the Supreme Court case that determined that the 14th amendment didn't apply to Native Americans?
Elk v. Williams (1884)
41
What did the lack of the naturalisation of citizenship for Native Americans mean?
They could not vote, and had very limited if any political rights
42
When was the Indian Citizenship Act?
1924
43
What did the Indian Citizenship Act determine?
Native Americans could become citizens despite being a member of a tribe - living on a federally recognised reservation - practising his or her culture
44
What was the intention behind the Indian Citizenship Act?
Another attempt at assimilation - make the remainder of Native Americans citizens to have them "adopt Anglo culture"
45
How were Natives prevented from voting following the Indian Citizenship Act?
States:
- Residency requirements: claiming that Natives were not residents of the states as they resided on reservations
- Taxation requirements: Natives who didn't pay taxes (because they lived on reservations/didn't earn any money) were not permitted to vote
- Literacy tests
- Self Termination: one must first abandon their tribal ties in order to vote
46
Why did some Native Americans support the Indian Citizenship Act?
It was a way of securing long-standing political identity
47
Why did some Native Americans resent the Indian Citizenship Act?
- They were concerned about tribal sovereignty
- Indian leaders were concerned about preserving Native American identity
- Many were reluctant to trust the government
- Some believed the US was forcing citizenship on all Indians without their consent
48
When was the American Indian Defence Association (AIDA) formed, and who founded it?
1923 - John Collier
49
When was the Meriam Report written and who wrote it?
1928 - AIDA/John Collier
50
What did the Meriam Report determine?
- The reservation policy was a disaster
- Criticised the Dawes Act for depriving Indians of their land and failing to provide them with additional support to achieve economy security
- Noted that the Native American schools were underfunded and understaffed
- Noted that Native American people were the most impoverished people in the country
51
What was the significance of the Meriam Report?
It was the first sign of white sympathy towards Native Americans, and first sign of white recognition of the failings of the reservations policy
52
What was the result of the Meriam Report?
- Herbert Hoover supported the recommendations of the report
- Appointed a new Indian Commissioner (Charles Rhodes)
- Put together a reform package along the lines of those suggested in the report which included the closure of boarding schools and replacing them with improved reservation schools
53
What were the limitations of the Meriam Report?
This did not end the matter of allotted lands
54
What is the name of the act that worked to preserve Native American culture during the new deal?
Wheeler-Howard Act/Indian Reorganisation Act (1934)
55
What did the Wheeler-Howard Act (1934) give to Native Americans?
- The right to practise their religion
- The right to undertake ceremonial dances and celebrations
- Curtailed the sale of individual buyers and all unallocated land lost between 1900 and 1934 was restored to the tribes
- The extension of political rights to women
- New Deal funding enabled the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) to build new schools and hospitals; census data indicated the Native American population was increasing at a faster rate than nationally, which indicated the success of the improvements in health provision
56
What were the drawbacks of the Wheeler-Howard Act?
- It ended the allotment policy but not assimilation
- Funds were never sufficient to buy back the huge amounts of former reservation lands, and the funding was later diverted to WWII
- Due to the fact that Collier had not consulted Native Americans there was a great deal of confusion from within the Indian communities
57
How much land did the Natives recover from the Reservations Policy?
2 million acres
58
Why did Native Americans join WWII?
- Low levels of development and lack of economic opportunities; in 1939 - the median income for Native American males living on reservations was $500 compared to the national average of $2300
- There was an aspect of patriotism and warrior culture amongst some tribes
59
How many Native Americans fought in WWII?
- 25,000 active soliders
- Several hundred women served as nurses
- Roughly 1/3 of all able bodied men 18-50 and as high as 70% of the population of some tribes
60
What was the main use of Native Americans in WWII?
- Code talkers
- 421 Navajo served
61
What were the negative effects on WWII for Native Americans?
- Funding was diverted from their education and healthcare to the war effort
- Many Japanese Americans were relocated to Native American reservations
62
Why was the Indian Claims Commission brought about?
The National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), formed during the second world war, brought together a collection of tribes and pressured the government
63
What did the ICC intend to do?
Give the land promised to Native Americans in treaties but ended up loosing e.g. Black Hills
64
What was the intention of the ICC?
Have the federal government step out of Native American business (first step in termination)
65
How effective was the ICC?
- Within a short period of time 370 petitions had been filed
- It worked slow with little regard to the evidence provided by Native American tribes
- When settlements were made it was usually attempted in the form of financial compensation instead of land
- However, some tribes refused the compensation and refused to fight for the land e.g. the Sioux Indians for the Black Hills
- Despite initially being set up for 5 years - it received so many claims and worked so inefficiently that it only shut down in 1978
66
Why did the Termination Policy begin?
- Indian Reorganisation Act (IRA) was seen as a form of socialism as the land was communally owned and limited the property right of individual Indians
- Many saw the BIA as an expensive and unnecessary form of bureaucracy funded by white tax payers
- Many congressmen didn't like the IRA policy to begin with because they believe the autonomy it granted the Native American communities gave them special privileges
- The IRA was criticised by the National Council of Churches for the support it gave to Native American religions
67
What did the Termination Policy entail?
- The ending of state funding for Indian Affairs (defunding of the BIA)
- The policy of Relocation in 1948
68
What was the idea behind the relocation policy?
- AIDA began a policy of relocating Indians to cities where there were better job opportunities than on the reservations
- By 1960, nearly 30% of all Native Americans lived in cities, compared to the 8% in 1940
69
What was the impact of the relocation policy on Native Americans?
- The BIA reported that Native Americans found the adjustment to new working and living conditions more difficult than anticipated as early as 1953
- Many Native Americans suffered from unemployment, slum living and alcoholism
- Federal funding for the relocation project was never enough to help Native Americans deal with these problems
70
What was the law that transferred criminal jurisdiction from the Indians to state authorities
Public Law 280
71
What was the result of the Termination policy of Relocation?
- By 1960 around 60,0000 Natives had left their reservations to go to cities like Chicago, San Francisco and Oakland
- Unemployment rose to 18%
- Life expectancy was 44 years - 20 years below the national average
- The problems that persisted in reservations were overcrowded housing, unsanitary water and alcohol abuse
72
Give 4 protests involving the Red Power movement
1. Siege of Alcatraz (1969-1971)
2. Occupation of Mount Rushmore (1971)
3. AIM takeover of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (1972)
4. Occupation of Wounded Knee (1973)
73
What was the key organisation in the Red Power movement and when where they formed?
American Indian Movement (AIM) formed in 1968
74
Outline the events of the Siege of Alcatraz
- Alcatraz had been left unused for 6 years by the federal government form 1963
- Native Americans claimed their right to live on any unused federal land as per the Fort Laramie Treaty 1868
- Led by **Adam Fortunate Eagle Nordwall** and **Richard Oakes**, they occupied Alcatraz for 19 months
- Nixon eventually forced them out by cutting water and electricity in 1971
75
What were the impacts of the Siege of Alctaraz
- Raised awareness of Native American issues
- Inspired more indigenous activism
- Policy reforms and negotiations
76
Outline the Occupation of Wounded Knee
- 200 activists seized control of the small town of Wounded Knee in 1973
- Occupation lasted for 71 days leading to a standoff between FBI/Police and AIM
- 2 people were killed and eventually a peace was negotiated where charges against AIM were dropped
77
Outline the Occupation of Mount Rushmore
- AIM protestors set up camp below Mount Rushmore (designated a National Memorial) - renaming it Mount Crazy Horse in 1971
- They attempted to reassert Indian ownership of the sacred burial grounds of the Lakota Sioux Indians in the Black Hills
- Protestors were eventually evicted - ownership is still disputed
78
Outline the AIM takeover of the Bureau of Indian Affairs
- 'Trail of Broken Treaties Caravan' carrying 1,000 protestors arrived in DC
- Their purpose was to raise awareness for Native Americans in advance of the upcoming presidential election and the leaders drafted up 20 points that needed to be addressed
- Despite it being intended as a peaceful protest - marchers found themselves without accomodation in the city, and so occupied the offices of the BIA
- Violence broke out when the authorities tried to evict the protestors
79
What were the impacts of Red Power?
- Raised publicity and public awareness for Native American History
- Created a sense of unity amongst Native Americans - tribal separation was replaced by a need to cooperate
- Federal legislation during the 60s and 70s became more sympathetic towards the Native American cause
80
Give 4 presidents under whom Native American rights progressed in the 1960s and after
1. Johnson
2. Nixon
3. Ford
4. Carter
81
Give 6 ways Nixon progressed Native American rights
1. Ended the policy of termination
2. Appointed Mohawk-Sioux **Louis R Bruce Jr** as Commissioner for Indian Affairs
3. Gave Indians preference in jobs in the BIA to ensure greater Indian leadership and participation in government affairs relating to them
4. Authorised the **return of land** to the Makah, Taos, Pueblo and Yakama tribes
5. **Indian Education Act** (1972); improved Indian educational provisions
6. **Re-recognised Indian tribes** following termination - which gave them access to federal courts, and therefore a means of seeking redress for their loss of treaty rights
82
What landmark act did Ford pass?
Indian Self Determination Act (1975)
83
What did the Indian Self Determination Act bring about?
- Allowed Natives to negotiate contracts with the BIA to take control of their own education, healthcare and social service provision
- Led to the abandonment of the necessity of assimilation as it recognised the right of Native Americans to self-determination
- Authorised the allocation of federal funding for these programmes which moved the tribes to near self sufficiency
84
Give an example of an act that Carter passed that brought greater rights to Natives?
Native American Religious Freedom Act (1978)
85
How did states protect religious freedom?
30 states passed laws to protect Native American burial grounds and remains
86
Give 4 major changes that came about in the 60s and 70s
1. Indian tribes were re-recognised following termination which allowed them to challenge their lost land in federal courts
2. Indian's were given greater control over the BIA allowing them to play a greater role in leadership and government policy that affected them
3. They became almost self-sufficient - running their own schools, hospitals and social service programmes
4. They were given religious freedom
87
Give 5 Supreme Court cases that Natives used to advance their rights
1. Oneida v. Oneida and Madison Counties, New York (1974)
2. Fisher v. Montana (1976)
3. United States v. The Sioux Nation (1980)
4. Seminole Tribe v. Butterworth (1982)
5. Charrier v. Bell (1986)
88
What did the Oneida v. Oneida and Madison Counties, New York (1974) case establish?
The right of the Oneida tribe to sue for the return of lands via the supreme court and set the precedent for land claims from other tribes
89
What did the Fisher v. Montana (1976) case establish?
Gave Indians the right to decide on all matters relating to adoption and foster care
90
What did the United States v. Sioux Nation (1980) case establish?
Gave the Sioux nation financial compensation totaling around $100 million dollars for the Black Hills, which they refused preferring the land instead of the money
91
What did the Seminole v. Butterworth (1982) case establish?
Tribes had the right to establish gambling enterprises on their reservation lands even if gambling was banned by state laws
92
What did the Charrier v. Bell (1986) case establish?
Ruled that the remains dug from the ground in Louisiana belonged to the Native American community
93
What was NARF?
- Native American Rights Fund
- Pressed cases on behalf of tribes in the Supreme Court
- Trained young Native Americans as attorneys
