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nature's chemistry Flashcards

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1
Q

What are esters made from?

A

An alcohol and carboxylic acids

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2
Q

What are esters used for?

A

In fragrances and flavourings

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3
Q

How are esters made?

A

By a condensation reaction

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4
Q

How are esters broken down?

A

By alkaline hydrolysis

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5
Q

What type of reaction is the formation of esters?

A

A reversible reaction

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6
Q

What can esters be hydrolysed to produce?

A

Esters can be hydrolysed to produce the parent carboxylic acid and parent alcohol.

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7
Q

What is the process of hydrolysis?

A

In a hydrolysis reaction, a molecule reacts with water breaking down into smaller molecules.

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8
Q

What are fats and oils formed from?

A

Fats and oils are esters formed from the condensation of glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol) and three carboxylic acid molecules.

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9
Q

What are the carboxylic acids in fats and oils known as?

A

The carboxylic acids are known as ‘fatty acids’ and are saturated or unsaturated straight-chain carboxylic acids.

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10
Q

What is the relationship between melting points of oils and fats?

A

The lower melting points of oils compared to those of fats is related to the higher degree of unsaturation of oil molecules.

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11
Q

What causes the low melting points of oils?

A

The low melting points of oils are a result of the effect that the shapes of the molecules have on close packing, hence on the strength of van der Waals’ forces of attraction.

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12
Q

How can oils be converted to fats?

A

Oils can be converted to fats by hydrogenation, an addition reaction with hydrogen.

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13
Q

What is the effect of hydrogenation on oils?

A

Hydrogenation reduces the degree of unsaturation which increases the melting point.

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14
Q

What are the functions of fats and oils?

A

Fats and oils are a concentrated source of energy and essential for the transport and storage of fat-soluble vitamins in the body.

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15
Q

What are proteins primarily made of?

A

Proteins are the major structural materials of animal tissue and are involved in the maintenance and regulation of life processes.

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16
Q

What are amino acids?

A

Amino acids are the building blocks from which proteins are formed, and they all contain an amino group (NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH).

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17
Q

What is the link between two amino acids called?

A

The link which forms between two amino acids can be recognised as a peptide link (CONH), also known as an amide link.

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18
Q

What are proteins made of?

A

Proteins are made of many amino acid molecules linked together by condensation reactions.

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19
Q

How are amino acids linked in proteins?

A

The amino group on one amino acid and the carboxyl group on a neighbouring amino acid join together, with the elimination of water.

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20
Q

What are essential amino acids?

A

Essential amino acids are certain amino acids that the body cannot make and must be obtained from dietary protein.

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21
Q

How are amino acids produced during digestion?

A

During digestion, enzyme hydrolysis of dietary proteins can produce amino acids.

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22
Q

What are enzymes?

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A

Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts.

23
Q

What shapes can proteins take?

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A

Proteins can be twisted into spirals, folded into sheets, or wound into complex shapes.

24
Q

What holds the shapes of proteins?

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A

The shapes of proteins are held by intermolecular bonding between the side chains of the constituent amino acids.

25
What happens to proteins when heated?
When proteins are heated, intermolecular bonds are broken, allowing proteins to change shape (denature).
26
What are aldehydes?
Many flavour and aroma molecules are aldehydes.
27
What functional group do aldehydes and ketones contain?
Aldehydes and ketones both contain the carbonyl functional group.
28
How can aldehydes and ketones be identified?
Aldehydes can be identified by the ‘-al’ name ending, while ketones can be identified by the ‘-one’ name ending.
29
What can be done with straight-chain and branched-chain aldehydes and ketones?
They can be named from structural formulae, structural formulae can be drawn from names, and molecular formulae can be written from names.
30
What distinguishes aldehydes from ketones in oxidation?
Aldehydes can be oxidised to carboxylic acids, while ketones cannot.
31
What tests can differentiate between aldehydes and ketones?
Fehling’s solution, Tollens’ reagent, and acidified dichromate solution can be used for differentiation. ## Footnote Positive test results: ♦ Fehling’s — blue solution to a brick red precipitate ♦ Tollens’ — formation of a silver mirror ♦ hot copper (ii) oxide — colour change from black to brick red / orange ♦ acidified dichromate test — colour change from orange to green
32
How do functional groups influence properties?
Functional groups, including hydroxyl, carbonyl, and carboxyl, influence solubility, boiling points, and volatility.
33
What can be said about branched-chain alcohols?
Branched-chain alcohols, with no more than eight carbon atoms in their longest chain, can be named from structural formulae, structural formulae can be drawn from names, and molecular formulae can be written from names.
34
What explains the properties of alcohols?
Hydrogen bonding can explain the properties of alcohols, including boiling points, melting points, viscosity, and solubility/miscibility in water.
35
What are diols and triols?
Diols and triols are structures that exhibit hydrogen bonding, affecting properties such as boiling points, melting points, viscosity, and solubility/miscibility in water.
36
How are primary and secondary alcohols oxidised?
Primary alcohols are oxidised to aldehydes and then to carboxylic acids, while secondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones. Tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidised.
37
What happens during oxidation and reduction of carbon compounds?
Oxidation results in an increase in the oxygen to hydrogen ratio, while reduction results in a decrease.
38
What can be said about branched-chain carboxylic acids?
Branched-chain carboxylic acids, with no more than eight carbon atoms in their longest chain, can be named from structural formulae, structural formulae can be drawn from names, and molecular formulae can be written from names.
39
What are the reactions of carboxylic acids?
Reactions include reduction in terms of products and effect on the oxygen to hydrogen ratio, reactions with bases to form salts, and reactions with alcohols to form esters.
40
What effect does oxygen have on edible oils?
Oxygen reacts with edible oils, giving the food a rancid flavour.
41
What are antioxidants?
Antioxidants are molecules that prevent oxidation reactions from taking place.
42
What is the process of soap production?
Production of soaps by the alkaline hydrolysis of fats and oils to form water-soluble ionic salts called soaps.
43
What are the two parts of soap ions?
Soap ions have a long covalent tail (hydrophobic) and an ionic carboxylate head (hydrophilic).
44
How do soaps work during cleaning?
The hydrophobic tails dissolve in oil or grease, while the hydrophilic heads face into the water, forming ball-like structures.
45
What is an emulsion?
An emulsion contains small droplets of one liquid dispersed in another liquid.
46
What is the role of emulsifiers in food?
Emulsifiers prevent oil and water components from separating into layers.
47
How are food emulsifiers commonly made?
By reacting edible oils with glycerol to form molecules with one or two fatty acid groups linked to a glycerol backbone.
48
What are essential oils?
Concentrated extracts from plants, consisting of organic compounds.
49
What are terpenes?
Key components in most essential oils, formed by joining isoprene units.
50
What are the uses of essential oils?
Widely used in perfumes, cosmetic products, cleaning products, and as flavorings in foods.
51
What is the effect of ultraviolet radiation (UV)?
UV light can result in molecules gaining energy to break bonds, causing sunburn and skin aging.
52
What happens when UV light breaks bonds?
Free radicals are formed, which are highly reactive due to unpaired electrons.
53
What are the steps of a free radical chain reaction?
Initiation, propagation, and termination.
54
What are free radical scavengers?
Molecules that react with free radicals to form stable molecules and prevent chain reactions.

higher chemistry (3 decks)

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