Neoplasia Flashcards
(198 cards)
1
Q
The cells in the neoplasm are derived from a single […]
A
The cells in the neoplasm are derived from a single cell
2
Q
Neoplastic cells are transformed cells that result in heritable genetic changes that are passed down to their […]
A
Neoplastic cells are transformed cells that result in heritable genetic changes that are passed down to their progeny
3
Q
Benign neoplasms are typically innocent as they are […] meaning they are similar to their normal ancestor cell
A
Benign neoplasms are typically innocent as they are well-differentiated meaning they are similar to their normal ancestor cell
4
Q
Malignant neoplasms are the same as […] and may be “well-differentiated” but typically […] is present
A
Malignant neoplasms are the same as cancer and may be “well-differentiated” but typically anaplasia is present
5
Q
[…], or loss of normal cellular features, is a hallmark of malignancy
A
Anaplasia, or loss of normal cellular features, is a hallmark of malignancy
6
Q
[…] tumors remain localized, can be surgically removed, and rarely cause serious disease
A
Benign tumors remain localized, can be surgically removed, and rarely cause serious disease
7
Q
[…] tumors destory & invade local tissues and can metastasize
A
Malignant tumors destory & invade local tissues and can metastasize
8
Q
Expansive mitotic figures is a feature of […] tumors
A
Expansive mitotic figures is a feature of malignant tumors
9
Q
Carcinoma […] means there is dysplasia throughout the entire epithelium
A
Carcinoma in-situ means there is dysplasia throughout the entire epithelium
10
Q
Carcinoma in-situ is a non-invasive form of malignancy as the neoplasm has not invaded underlying […]
A
Carcinoma in-situ is a non-invasive form of malignancy as the neoplasm has not invaded underlying basement membrane
11
Q
The suffic […] means swelling
A
The suffic -oma means swelling
12
Q
The prefix […] is added if the tumor is malignant and of epithelial origin
A
The prefix carcin- is added if the tumor is malignant and of epithelial origin
13
Q
The prefix […] is added to a malignant tumor name if of mesenchymal origin
A
The prefix sarc- is added to a malignant tumor name if of mesenchymal origin
14
Q
[…] is a benign tumor that originates from totipotent cells which means it maintains a variety of tissues/cells
A
Teratoma is a benign tumor that originates from totipotent cells which means it maintains a variety of tissues/cells
15
Q
Adenomas of the pituitary islets can be fatal due to […]
A
Adenomas of the pituitary islets can be fatal due to hyperinsulinism
16
Q
Carcinoma of the adrenal cortex can be fatal due to […]
A
Carcinoma of the adrenal cortex can be fatal due to hyperaldosteronism
17
Q
A […] is not a tumor but a developmental anomaly that is the same tissue but in increased proportions
A
A hamartoma is not a tumor but a developmental anomaly that is the same tissue but in increased proportions
18
Q
A […] is a mass of normal tissue in an abnormal location (e.g., pancreas-like nodule in the small intestine)
A
A choristoma is a mass of normal tissue in an abnormal location (e.g., pancreas-like nodule in the small intestine)
19
Q
[…] has highest mortality for stomach cancer
A
Japan has highest mortality for stomach cancer
20
Q
[…] has highest mortality for breat cancer
A
United States has highest mortality for breat cancer
21
Q
[…] has highest mortality for hepatocellular carcinoma
A
Africa has highest mortality for hepatocellular carcinoma
22
Q
[…] has highest mortality for lung and bronchial cancers
A
Kentucky has highest mortality for lung and bronchial cancers
23
Q
Ultraviolet radiation causes […] dimers in DNA leading to mutations of protooncogenes and tumor suppressor genes
A
Ultraviolet radiation causes pyrimidine dimers in DNA leading to mutations of protooncogenes and tumor suppressor genes
24
Q
[…] is the most carcinogenic ultraviolet light
A
UVB is the most carcinogenic ultraviolet light
25
[...] causes double-strand and single-strand breaks in nucleic acids
Ionizing radiation causes double-strand and single-strand breaks in nucleic acids Cells in mitosis or G2 phase are most sensitive
26
[...] is a natural plant and microbial procarcinogen that is linked to increased rates of hepatocellular carcinoma in Africa
Aflatoxin B1 is a natural plant and microbial procarcinogen that is linked to increased rates of hepatocellular carcinoma in Africa
27
The principal targets of genetic damage in carcinogenesis are normal [...]
The principal targets of genetic damage in carcinogenesis are normal regulatory genes
28
Growth-promoting protooncogenes are [...] genes
Growth-promoting protooncogenes are dominant genes
29
Growth-inhibiting cancer suppressor genes are [...] genes
Growth-inhibiting cancer suppressor genes are recessive genes
30
hereditary defects in DNA mismatch repair lead to [...]
hereditary defects in DNA mismatch repair lead to hereditary non-polyposis colon carcinoma (HNPCC) syndrome
31
Hereditary defects in nucleotide excision repair lead to [...]
Hereditary defects in nucleotide excision repair lead to xeroderma pigmentosum
32
Defects in the repair of double-strand DNA breaks is associated with both [...] and [...] genes in breast cancer
Defects in the repair of double-strand DNA breaks is associated with both BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes in breast cancer
33
RecQ helicase mutations are found in which syndromes?
Bloom'sWerner's Rothmund-Thomson
34
Signs of an hereditary cancer syndrome include:
Early age of onsetTumors in 2 or more close relativesMultiple or bilateral tumors
35
[...] genetic mutation is associated with retinoblastoma
RB genetic mutation is associated with retinoblastoma
36
[...] gene mutation is associated with Li-Fraumeni syndrome
p53 gene mutation is associated with Li-Fraumeni syndrome
37
[...] is associated with an inherited predisposition to melanoma
p16INK4A is associated with an inherited predisposition to melanoma
38
[...] gene mutation is associated with an inherited predisposition to familial adenomatous polyposis/colon cancer
APC gene mutation is associated with an inherited predisposition to familial adenomatous polyposis/colon cancer
39
[...] are associated with inherited predisposition to neurofibromatosis 1 & 2
NF1 & NF2 are associated with inherited predisposition to neurofibromatosis 1 & 2
40
[...] are associated with an increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer
BRCA1 & BRCA2 are associated with an increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer
41
[...] are associated with an increased risk of multiple endocrine neoplasia 1 & 2
MEN1 & RET are associated with an increased risk of multiple endocrine neoplasia 1 & 2
42
[...] are associated with an increased risk of hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer
MSH2, MLH1, MSH6 are associated with an increased risk of hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer
43
[...] is associated with an increased risk of nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome
PATCH is associated with an increased risk of nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome
44
[...] occur in non-germline tissues and are NOT heritable
Somatic mutations occur in non-germline tissues and are NOT heritable
45
[...] are heritable mutations that will affect the egg or sperm and, as a result, the offspring
Germline mutations are heritable mutations that will affect the egg or sperm and, as a result, the offspring
46
Chronic ulcerative colitis can lead to [...]
Chronic ulcerative colitis can lead to colorectal carcinoma
47
[...] gene mutation is involved in the autosomal recessive cancer syndrome, Bloom syndrome
BLM gene mutation is involved in the autosomal recessive cancer syndrome, Bloom syndrome
48
Ataxia-telangiectasia is associated with the gene [...]
Ataxia-telangiectasia is associated with the gene ATM
49
Most (~90%) of cancers arise from the [...]
Most (~90%) of cancers arise from the epithelium
50
Fibro- means [...]
Fibro- means fibroblasts
51
Myxo- means [...]
Myxo- means myxoid tissue
52
Chondro- means [...]
Chondro- means cartilage
53
Osteo- means [...]
Osteo- means osteoblasts
54
Lipo- means [...]
Lipo- means fat
55
Chordo- means [...]
Chordo- means notochord remnants
56
Leiomyo- means [...]
Leiomyo- means smooth muscle
57
Rhabdomyo- means [...]
Rhabdomyo- means striated muscle
58
Schwanno- means [...]
Schwanno- means nerve sheath
59
Neurilemmo- means [...]
Neurilemmo- means nerve sheath
60
Neurofibro- means [...]
Neurofibro- means nerve sheath (endoneurium)
61
Hemangio- means [...]
Hemangio- means blood vessels
62
Lymphangio- means [...]
Lymphangio- means lymphatics
63
Glomangio- means [...]
Glomangio- means glomus
64
Synovio- means [...]
Synovio- means synovium
65
Mesothelio- means [...]
Mesothelio- means mesothelium
66
Meningio- means [...]
Meningio- means arachnoid granulations
67
Lympho- means [...]
Lympho- means lymphocytes
68
Chorio- means [...]
Chorio- means placenta
69
Pheochromocyto- means [...]
Pheochromocyto- means adrenal medulla
70
[...] may be reversible if they do not involve the entire thickness of epithelium
Dysplastic cells may be reversible if they do not involve the entire thickness of epithelium
71
What are the steps of carcinogenesis? (Basics)
Normal cell --> carcinogen-induced mutationPrecursor cell w/ stem cell-like propertiesAdditional mutations --> cancer progenitor cellAdditional mutations & subclones --> genetically heterogeneous cancer
72
[...] is overexpressed in ~80% of squamous cell carcinomas of the lung
ERBB1 is overexpressed in ~80% of squamous cell carcinomas of the lung
73
[...] is overexpressed in ~30% of breast cancers
HER2 (ERBB2) is overexpressed in ~30% of breast cancers
74
[...] is an anti-HER2 antibody treatment for HER2+ breast cancer
Herceptin is an anti-HER2 antibody treatment for HER2+ breast cancer
75
Mutant RAS oncogenes lose their [...] activity leading to constitutively activate
Mutant RAS oncogenes lose their GTPase activity leading to constitutively activate
76
When ABL is translocated from [...] to Chromsome 22
When ABL is translocated from Chromosome 9 to Chromsome 22
77
[...] translocation from chromosome 9 to chromosome 22 results in an oncogene
ABL translocation from chromosome 9 to chromosome 22 results in an oncogene
78
ABL gene translocation from chromosome 9 to chromsome [...] results in an oncogene
ABL gene translocation from chromosome 9 to chromsome 22 results in an oncogene
79
ABL translocation from chromosome 9 to chromosome 22 results in ABL fusion with [...] resulting in an ABL that cannot be inhibited by regulatory proteins and has potent tyrosine kinase activity that activates RAS
ABL translocation from chromosome 9 to chromosome 22 results in ABL fusion with BCR resulting in an ABL that cannot be inhibited by regulatory proteins and has potent tyrosine kinase activity that activates RAS
80
The [...] is diagnostic for CML and certain AML
The Philadelphia chromosome BCR-ABL fusion is diagnostic for CML and certain AML
81
[...] is a normal protein transcription factor that acts as a protooncogene as it binds DNA to induce the transcription of growth-related genes and falls, normally, after cell division begins
MYC is a normal protein transcription factor that acts as a protooncogene as it binds DNA to induce the transcription of growth-related genes and falls, normally, after cell division begins
82
How does MYC oncogene relate to Burkitt Lymphoma (B cell tumor)?
t(8;14) translocation (MYC goes from 8 --> 14)MYC is placed on Chr 14 downstream from Ig heavy chain geneMYC leads to overexpression of B cell
83
[...], a cyclin, is overexpressed in many cancers including breast, esophagus, liver and some lymphomas
Cyclin D, a cyclin, is overexpressed in many cancers including breast, esophagus, liver and some lymphomas
84
[...], a cyclin, is amplified in many cancers including sarcomas, melanomas, and glioblastomas
CDK4, a cyclin, is amplified in many cancers including sarcomas, melanomas, and glioblastomas
85
p57, p27, and p21 are functionally [...] in many cancers
p57, p27, and p21 are functionally down-regulated in many cancers
86
If the RB protein is absent or non-functional, there is no brake on transcription of [...] genes
If the RB protein is absent or non-functional, there is no brake on transcription of S phase genes
87
What is the Knudson's Two-Hit Hypothesis?
Development of retinoblastoma requires "two-hits"Hereditaroy retinoblastoma --> inherited RB gene mutation + somatic mutationNon-heridatory retinoblastoma --> one RB gene mutates + second RB gene mutates
88
At least one component of [...], a cancer suppressor gene, is mutated in most of pancreatic cancers and colon cancers
At least one component of TGF-β, a cancer suppressor gene, is mutated in most of pancreatic cancers and colon cancers
89
> 70% of human cancers have mutations in their [...] gene, a tumor suppressor gene, seen mutated in Li-Fraumeni syndrome
> 70% of human cancers have mutations in their p53 gene, a tumor suppressor gene, seen mutated in Li-Fraumeni syndrome
90
Overexpression of BCL2 leads to inhibition of [...] resulting in a lack of apoptosis
Overexpression of BCL2 leads to inhibition of BAX resulting in a lack of apoptosis
91
Overexpression of [...] leading to inhibition of BAX resulting in a lack of apoptosis
Overexpression of BCL2 leading to inhibition of BAX resulting in a lack of apoptosis
92
In melanomas, [...] can be mutated leading to a decrease in caspase cascade activity
In melanomas, APAF-1 can be mutated leading to a decrease in caspase cascade activity
93
Why are follicular lymphomas involving BCL2 overexpression slow growing?
BCL2 overexpression prevents cell deathThere is no excessive cell proliferation (slow growing)
94
[...] prevents RB phosphorylation and so the G1 --> S phase brake is maintained
CDKN1A prevents RB phosphorylation and so the G1 --> S phase brake is maintained
95
[...] has a short half-life due to being associated with MDM2 which helps target it for destruction. When activated by cell stress, it is released to direct cell cycle arrest or apoptosis
p53 has a short half-life due to being associated with MDM2 which helps target it for destruction. When activated by cell stress, it is released to direct cell cycle arrest or apoptosis
96
p53 has a short half-life due to being associated with [...]which helps target it for destruction. When activated by cell stress, it is released to direct cell cycle arrest or apoptosis
p53 has a short half-life due to being associated with MDM2which helps target it for destruction. When activated by cell stress, it is released to direct cell cycle arrest or apoptosis
97
β-catenin binds [...]
β-catenin binds E-cadherin
98
In quiescent cells, APC forms a destruction complex that degrades [...]
In quiescent cells, APC forms a destruction complex that degrades β-catenin
99
Loss of APC activity (in malignant cells) prevents the degradation of [...], which results in constitutive transcription of cell cycle proteins
Loss of APC activity (in malignant cells) prevents the degradation of β-catenin, which results in constitutive transcription of cell cycle proteins
100
RB is active when [...] and will serve as a S phase brake by binding to E2F
RB is active when hypophosphorylated and will serve as a S phase brake by binding to E2F
101
[...] RB is inactive and releases E2F leading to progression in S phase
Hyperphosphorylated RB is inactive and releases E2F leading to progression in S phase
102
[...] phosphorylates RB protein that guards G1/S checkpoint
CDK4 phosphorylates RB protein that guards G1/S checkpoint
103
[...] activates CDK4 which phosphorylates RB which guards G1/S phase
Cyclin D activates CDK4 which phosphorylates RB which guards G1/S phase
104
[...] is a malignant neoplasm of epithelium with a glandular appearance.
adenocarcinoma is a malignant neoplasm of epithelium with a glandular appearance.
105
[...] cancer will kill the most women in the U.S. in 2023
lung/bronchial cancer will kill the most women in the U.S. in 2023
106
You are given a biopsy report describing the findings from a lesion you removed from a patient last week. There was a technical glitch, and the final diagnosis is missing from the bottom of the report, but based on the description of the lesion, you know it is malignant. Which of the following terms did you most likely see that enabled you to make this inference?
Anaplasia
107
Which commonly diagnosed cancers in the U.S. this year, starting with the most common, will affect males?
Prostate > lung/bronchial > colorectal
108
A 38 yo female is diagnosed with CIN III lesion of the cervix, which is synonymous with carcinoma in situ. What does carcinoma in situ mean?
Complete epithelial dysplasia confined by basement membrane
109
[...] is a gene involved in the characteristic t(9;22) translocation in CML
ABL is a gene involved in the characteristic t(9;22) translocation in CML
110
[...] is amplified as double minutes in neuroblastoma
MYC is amplified as double minutes in neuroblastoma
111
[...] gene mutation results in loss of GTPase activity, constitutively activating the protein and signalling cell proliferation
RAS gene mutation results in loss of GTPase activity, constitutively activating the protein and signalling cell proliferation
112
[...] is known as guardian of the genome; mutated in Li Fraumeni syndrome
p53 is known as guardian of the genome; mutated in Li Fraumeni syndrome
113
[...] is an inhibitor of epithelial cell proliferation; mutations of this pathway are seen in virtually all pancreatic cancers
TGF-β is an inhibitor of epithelial cell proliferation; mutations of this pathway are seen in virtually all pancreatic cancers
114
[...] is an antioncogene that controls the transition to S-phase and interacts with transcription factor E2F
RB is an antioncogene that controls the transition to S-phase and interacts with transcription factor E2F
115
[...] is an anti-apoptotic protein that is overexpressed due to translocation to chromosome 14
BCL2 is an anti-apoptotic protein that is overexpressed due to translocation to chromosome 14
116
[...] genetic mutation is seen in familial cases of colorectal cancer; normal function is to degrade excess β-catenin
APC genetic mutation is seen in familial cases of colorectal cancer; normal function is to degrade excess β-catenin
117
[...] is associated with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)
t(9;22) is associated with chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)
118
[...] is associated with Burkitt lymphoma
t(8;14) is associated with Burkitt lymphoma
119
[...] is associated with follicular lymphoma
t(14;18) is associated with follicular lymphoma
120
[...] is a virus that is endemic to Japan and Caribbean and results in leukemia in ~1% of patients after 20-30 years
HTLV-1 is a virus that is endemic to Japan and Caribbean and results in leukemia in ~1% of patients after 20-30 years
121
For HTLV-1, a virus that causes leukemia, the [...] protein is most likely responsible for CD4+ cell transformation
For HTLV-1, a virus that causes leukemia, the TAX protein is most likely responsible for CD4+ cell transformation
122
HBV has a strong association with the formation of [...] with 90% of patients displaying viral integrations within their genome
HBV has a strong association with the formation of hepatocellular carcinoma with 90% of patients displaying viral integrations within their genome
123
The HBV element [...] is a transcriptional activator that helps to lead to hepatocellular carcinoma
The HBV element HBx is a transcriptional activator that helps to lead to hepatocellular carcinoma
124
[...] is associated with Burkitt Lymphoma in Africa
EBV is associated with Burkitt Lymphoma in Africa
125
In EBV, [...] activates host genes such as Cyclin D that help lead to Burkitt Lymphoma
In EBV, EBNA-2 activates host genes such as Cyclin D that help lead to Burkitt Lymphoma
126
In EBV, [...] mimics B-cell activation and activates BCL-2 to help facilitate the formation of Burkitt Lymphoma
In EBV, LMP-1 mimics B-cell activation and activates BCL-2 to help facilitate the formation of Burkitt Lymphoma
127
HPV types [...] and [...] are associated with squamous cell cancers of the cervix
HPV types 16 and 18 are associated with squamous cell cancers of the cervix
128
HPV proteins [...] and [...] are responsible for HPV-related cancers (e.g., cervical cancer)
HPV proteins E6 and E7 are responsible for HPV-related cancers (e.g., cervical cancer)
129
HPV protein [...] is responsible for binding of RB
HPV protein E7 is responsible for binding of RB
130
Kaposi Sarcoma is associated with the virus, [...] in those who have concomitant HIV infection
Kaposi Sarcoma is associated with the virus, HHV-8 in those who have concomitant HIV infection
131
[...] is a bacteria that can facilitate the formation of gastric carcinoma and gastric lymphoma (MALT zone)
H. pylori is a bacteria that can facilitate the formation of gastric carcinoma and gastric lymphoma (MALT zone)
132
[...] leads to chronic gastritis leading to lymphoid follicle hypertrophy due to chronic T cell activation which leads to B cell proliferation and B cell tumor
H. pylori leads to chronic gastritis leading to lymphoid follicle hypertrophy due to chronic T cell activation which leads to B cell proliferation and B cell tumor
133
[...] is expressed in 90% of cancers as it functions to increase telomere repeats
Telomerase is expressed in 90% of cancers as it functions to increase telomere repeats
134
[...] is a telomere lengthening strategy that is independent of telomerase as it amplifies large blocks of DNA at chromosome ends
ALT is a telomere lengthening strategy that is independent of telomerase as it amplifies large blocks of DNA at chromosome ends
135
Tumor cells are typically limited to [...] in size unless they get vascularized
Tumor cells are typically limited to 1-2 mm in size unless they get vascularized
136
[...] is a anti-angiogenesis factor helping to minimize tumor vascularization
Thrombospondin-1 is a anti-angiogenesis factor helping to minimize tumor vascularization
137
[...] is an angiogenesis inhibitor that is derived from plasminogen
Angiostatin is an angiogenesis inhibitor that is derived from plasminogen
138
[...] is an angiogenesis inhibitor that is derived from collagen
Endostatin is an angiogenesis inhibitor that is derived from collagen
139
[...] is an angiogenesis inhibitor derived from transthretin
Vasculostatin is an angiogenesis inhibitor derived from transthretin
140
[...], a tumor suppressor gene, increases the synthesis of thrombospondin-1 so if it is mutated, this synthesis will not occur and the anti-angiogenesis factor will not be present for inhibition of vascularization
p53, a tumor suppressor gene, increases the synthesis of thrombospondin-1 so if it is mutated, this synthesis will not occur and the anti-angiogenesis factor will not be present for inhibition of vascularization
141
[...] is an angiogenic factor that is under the control of RAS oncoprotein and is induced by hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1)
VEGF is an angiogenic factor that is under the control of RAS oncoprotein and is induced by hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1)
142
[...] is an angiogenic factor stored in the ECM and released by proteolytic cleavage of ECM as the tumor invades local tissue
FGF is an angiogenic factor stored in the ECM and released by proteolytic cleavage of ECM as the tumor invades local tissue
143
Pituitary adenomas have been observed to shrink as they grow within the sella turcica leading to progressive compression of [...] resulting in necrosis
Pituitary adenomas have been observed to shrink as they grow within the sella turcica leading to progressive compression of blood supply resulting in necrosis
144
The most common sites of hematogenous spread of cancer include the [...] and the [...]
The most common sites of hematogenous spread of cancer include the liver and the lungs
145
[...], a type of cancer, see lymphatic spread (metastasis)
Carcinomas, a type of cancer, see lymphatic spread (metastasis)
146
[...], a type of cancer, sees hematogenous spread (metastasis)
Sarcomas, a type of cancer, sees hematogenous spread (metastasis)
147
What are the (4) steps of invasion of ECM?
Detachment of tumor cells from each otherAttachment of tumor cells to matrix componentsDegradation of ECMMigration of tumor cells
148
[...], a cell adhesion molecule, that is typically lost in epithelial cell cancers due to mutation of β-catenin
E-cadherin, a cell adhesion molecule, that is typically lost in epithelial cell cancers due to mutation of β-catenin
149
Carcinoma cells have [...] receptors all around the cell membrane to help attach to matrix components of ECM
Carcinoma cells have laminin receptors all around the cell membrane to help attach to matrix components of ECM
150
[...], a cell adhesion molecule, is usually deficient in cancer cells to help them detach from ECM for invasion
Fibronectin, a cell adhesion molecule, is usually deficient in cancer cells to help them detach from ECM for invasion
151
[...] and [...] are two MMPs typically seen in tumor cells to help degrade the ECM
Cathepsin D and Type IV collagenase are two MMPs typically seen in tumor cells to help degrade the ECM
152
[...] is a wasting syndrome associated with loss of body fat and lean body mass accompanied with weakness, anorexia, and anemia. This syndrome is seen in patients with cancer.
Cancer cachexia is a wasting syndrome associated with loss of body fat and lean body mass accompanied with weakness, anorexia, and anemia. This syndrome is seen in patients with cancer.
153
Cancer cachexia is correlated with size and extent of [...]
Cancer cachexia is correlated with size and extent of metastasis
154
The most common paraneoplastic syndrome is [...] that is due to ACTH production
The most common paraneoplastic syndrome is Cushing Syndrome that is due to ACTH production
155
50% of [...] patients will note Cushing Syndrome due to ACTH
50% of small cell carcinoma of the lung patients will note Cushing Syndrome due to ACTH
156
The tumor [...] details the aggressiveness or level of malignancy
The tumor grade details the aggressiveness or level of malignancy
157
The tumor [...] details the current extent of tumor spread
The tumor stage details the current extent of tumor spread
158
Grading a neoplasm describes level of [...] in increasing grading (e.g., Grade I, II, III, or IV)
Grading a neoplasm describes level of anaplasia in increasing grading (e.g., Grade I, II, III, or IV)
159
The "T" in TNM grading represents the [...]
The "T" in TNM grading represents the primary tumor
160
The "N" in TNM grading describes [...]
The "N" in TNM grading describes regional lymph node involvement
161
The "M" in the TNM grading describes [...]
The "M" in the TNM grading describes metastases
162
The [...] cancer grading system considers TNM but divides tumor stages into stages (e.g., 0 to IV)
The AJC cancer grading system considers TNM but divides tumor stages into stages (e.g., 0 to IV)
163
When compared with grading [...] has greater prognostic value for cancer diagnosis
When compared with grading staging has greater prognostic value for cancer diagnosis
164
[...] is a monoclonal antibody that looks for thyroid cancers
Thyroglobulin is a monoclonal antibody that looks for thyroid cancers
165
[...] is a monoclonal antibody that evaluates for melanoma and neural tumors
S100 is a monoclonal antibody that evaluates for melanoma and neural tumors
166
[...] is a monoclonal antibody that evaluates for smooth and skeletal muscle cancer
Actin is a monoclonal antibody that evaluates for smooth and skeletal muscle cancer
167
[...] can be used as monoclonal antibodies to evaluate for lymphomas/leukemias
CD markers can be used as monoclonal antibodies to evaluate for lymphomas/leukemias
168
[...] can be used with monoclonal antibodies to evaluate for breast cancer
Estrogen receptors can be used with monoclonal antibodies to evaluate for breast cancer
169
[...] is a commonly used diagnostic marker for prostate cancer
PSA is a commonly used diagnostic marker for prostate cancer
170
[...] along with PSA are used to help diagnose prostate cancer
Prostatic acid phosphatase along with PSA are used to help diagnose prostate cancer
171
[...] is a diagnostic marker for carcinomas of the lungs, pancreas, stomach, breast, and colon
CEA is a diagnostic marker for carcinomas of the lungs, pancreas, stomach, breast, and colon
172
[...] is commonly evaluated for medullary carcinoma of the thyroid
Calcitonin is commonly evaluated for medullary carcinoma of the thyroid
173
[...] is a common marker used to evaluate for trophoblastic tumors and choriocarcinoma
hCG is a common marker used to evaluate for trophoblastic tumors and choriocarcinoma
174
[...] is used to evaluate for hepatoma, non-seminomatous testicular germ-cell tumors
AFP is used to evaluate for hepatoma, non-seminomatous testicular germ-cell tumors
175
Edema is an abnormal accumulation of [...] caused by a variety of conditions
Edema is an abnormal accumulation of interstitial fluid caused by a variety of conditions
176
Increased [...] pressure and/or diminished [...] osmotic pressure results in increased movement of water into the interstitium
Increased hydrostatic pressure and/or diminished colloid osmotic pressure results in increased movement of water into the interstitium
177
[...] describes the pressure exerted by an fluid onto the wall of an enclosed space (e.g., vasculature)
Hydrostatic pressure describes the pressure exerted by an fluid onto the wall of an enclosed space (e.g., vasculature)
178
[...] results in local increases in intravascular pressure that lead to edema restricted to the distal portion of the affected leg
Deep venous thrombosis results in local increases in intravascular pressure that lead to edema restricted to the distal portion of the affected leg
179
What are (3) factors that lead to edema in patients with CHF?
Reduced CO --> venous congestion --> increased capillary hydrostatic pressureReduced CO --> hypoperfusion of kidneys --> RAAS --> Na+ & H2O retentionFluid increase --> inability of heart to increase CO --> increased fluid retention, increased venous hydrostatic pressure --> worsening edema
180
Decreased [...], as seen in nephrotic & hepatic syndromes, will lead to decreased plasma osmotic pressure and edema
Decreased albumin, as seen in nephrotic & hepatic syndromes, will lead to decreased plasma osmotic pressure and edema
181
Decreased albumin, as seen in nephrotic & hepatic syndromes, will lead to decreased plasma [...] pressure and edema
Decreased albumin, as seen in nephrotic & hepatic syndromes, will lead to decreased plasma osmotic pressure and edema
182
Why is edema not corrected by the kidneys when the precipating factor is low albumin?
Kidneys increase Na+ & H2O retentionEdema is due to reduced plasma oncotic pressure Decreased pressure --> decreased velocity --> increased fluid leakage
183
[...] edema sees no residual indentation following the application of pressure at the site of swelling
Nonpitting edema sees no residual indentation following the application of pressure at the site of swelling
184
[...] edema sees residual indentation following application of pressure to the site of swelling
Pitting edema sees residual indentation following application of pressure to the site of swelling
185
[...] is a type of non-pitting edema that results from lymphatic obstruction
Lymphedema is a type of non-pitting edema that results from lymphatic obstruction
186
[...] is a type of non-pitting edema seen in thyroid disease
Myxedema is a type of non-pitting edema seen in thyroid disease
187
[...] edema is commonly seen in hyperthyroidism
Pretibial edema is commonly seen in hyperthyroidism
188
Brain edema is a severe life-threatening condition as the brain can herniate through the [...], if severe, resulting in death
Brain edema is a severe life-threatening condition as the brain can herniate through the foramen magnum, if severe, resulting in death
189
Increased intracranial pressure can result in the brain stem vascular supply becoming compressed resulting in death due to disrupted [...] that control respiration
Increased intracranial pressure can result in the brain stem vascular supply becoming compressed resulting in death due to disrupted medullary centers that control respiration
190
Primary lymphedema, in which a person is born with poor lymphatic flow, is a characteristic of [...] syndrome
Primary lymphedema, in which a person is born with poor lymphatic flow, is a characteristic of Turner syndrome
191
Lymphedema is characterized by a [...] rich, protein rich fluid that fills the interstiitial space
Lymphedema is characterized by a lipid rich, protein rich fluid that fills the interstiitial space
192
[...] are minute hemorrhages into the skin, mucous membranes, or serosal surfaces that occur due to low platelet counts (thrombocytopenia) or defective platelet function
Petechiae are minute hemorrhages into the skin, mucous membranes, or serosal surfaces that occur due to low platelet counts (thrombocytopenia) or defective platelet function
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[...] are slightly larger hemorrhages (than petechiae) that result from trauma, thrombocytopenia, or defective platelet function
Purpura are slightly larger hemorrhages (than petechiae) that result from trauma, thrombocytopenia, or defective platelet function
194
[...] are large subcutnaeous hematomas (e.g., bruises)
Ecchymoses are large subcutnaeous hematomas (e.g., bruises)
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A redish hue of ecchymosis is due to [...] content
A redish hue of ecchymosis is due to hemoglobin content
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The purple-blue-green color of ecchymosis is due to enzymatic degradation of hemoglobin leading to [...]
The purple-blue-green color of ecchymosis is due to enzymatic degradation of hemoglobin leading to bilirubin
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The yellow-green color seen in ecchymosis is due to [...]
The yellow-green color seen in ecchymosis is due to hemosiderin
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What are the main abnormalities (3) that lead to thombosis? (Virchow's Triad)
Endothelial injuryStasis or turbulent blood flowHypercoagulability of blood
