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ANHB1102 > Nervous System 1 > Flashcards

Nervous System 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Tetanus

A

Also known as lockjaw it is a disease of the nervous system caused by bacteria found in soil, saliva, dust etc. and generally enters the body through cuts and punctures. It causes severe muscle spasm which can last for minutes of which some are strong enough to break bonds and has a death rate of 10% for the unvaccinated.

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2
Q

Nervous System

A

This is one of the body’s internal coordination system along with the endocrine system. It receives sensory information about external and internal environments (sight, touch, sound, taste etc.)and process this information to determine if a response is required. If a response is then required it carries out commands to effectors (muscles and glands). This helps to maintain homeostasis. It is also involved in memory, learning, thinking, emotions and the production of gametes. There is a general unawareness in terms of the functions of the entirety of this systems functions.

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3
Q

Central Nervous System (CNS)

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This is comprised of the brain and spinal cord which are surrounded by bone as a protective layer.

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4
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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This is comprised of cranial and spinal nerves as well as ganglia (collections of nerve cell bodies) in other areas of the body.

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5
Q

Sensory & Motor Neurons

A

Also known as afferent neurons these conduct signals from receptors to the CNS. Interneurons in the CNS will receive messages from sensory neurons and transmit them to motor neurons. Also known as efferent neurons these conduct signals from the CNS to effectors (glands and muscles).

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6
Q

Sensory Nervous System

A

This division detects stimuli and transmits information from receptors to the CNS. This division contains sensory neurons and has 2 division being the somatic and the visceral. The somatic subdivision relays consciously perceived information e.g. images from eyes or sound from ears. The visceral subdivision relays unconsciously perceived information e.g. blood flow in veins or internal organ function.

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7
Q

Motor Nervous System

A

This division initiates and transmits information from the CNS to the effectors. This division also contains the somatic and autonomic subdivisions. The somatic subdivision is involved with the control of effectors that are consciously and voluntarily controlled e.g. skeletal muscle. The autonomic subdivision is involved in the control of effectors that are unconsciously or involuntarily controlled e.g. cardiac muscle.

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8
Q

Neuron Structure

A

These are the main cells of the nervous system which consists of dendrites, cell body and axon. These are excitable (respond to stimuli), conductive (produce electrical signals which pass to other cells) and secretory (neurotransmitters). The dendrites are tree-like structures with many of these structures per cell. These are signal inputs (receiving) and are short, thick and unmyelinated. The somas are nerve cell bodies which contains the nucleus of the cell. The axons are long structures with 1 per cell which act as signal outputs (transmitting electrical signals). These can range from millimeters to >1m long and be myelinated or unmyelinated.

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9
Q

Glial Cells

A

These are the second cell type found in the nervous system which are known as Schwann cells in the PNS and having many different types in the CNS. These have many functions including myelin production, support of neurons, protection of neurons etc.

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10
Q

Schwann Cells

A

These are also known as neurolemmocytes and are the glial cells of the PNS. These form the myelin sheath.

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11
Q

Types of Neurons

A

Neurons can come in 3 different types which are unipolar, bipolar and multipolar with each type having specific locations and functions. Unipolar neurons are typically found in the sensory PNS which contain a cell body attached by a short process leaving an uninterrupted path from the dendrite to the axon. Bipolar neurons are typically found in the sensory CNS with a cell body in between the dendrite and axon. Most neurons are multipolar and are found in the CNS and motor PNS. These typically have many more dendrites attached to the cell body with a singular axon.

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12
Q

How Neurons Generate an Electrical Signal

A

Neural communication occurs via electrical currents. Neurons are the most polarised cells in the body with an RMP of -70mV. Under certain conditions with polarity can cause electrical current (flow of charged particles (ions)). The stimulation of a dendrite or soma creates a local potential which varies according to the strength of the stimuli and gets weaker as it spreads from the origin point. This stimulus can be excitatory (cause depolarization) or inhibitory (cause hyperpolarisation). In an excitatory potential is strong enough it will arrive at the trigger zone and an action potential can initiate which is then sent to the end of the axon.

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13
Q

Polarised

A

The different properties on either side of the cell membrane that allows cells to have an electrical potential (charge difference). The potential is typically caused by charged particles e.g. Na+, K+, Cl- etc.

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14
Q

Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

A

This is the difference in charge across a cell membrane when the cell is unstimulated. This is typically around -70mV but can differ. It is negative as more negatively charged ions (less positively charged ions as well) are found within the membrane than outside it.

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15
Q

Depolarisation & Hyperpolarisation

A

These are the ways in which the electrical potential within a cell can change. One is caused by an excitatory stimulus which makes the inside of the cell become less negatively charged. This is caused by the inflow of positive ions. The other type is caused by an inhibitory stimulus which makes the inside of the cell become more negatively charged. This is caused by the outflow of positive ions.

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16
Q

Trigger Zone

A

A specialised area of the neuron cell membrane which allows for a rapid change in voltage. This is found on the axon hillock (point where the axon starts).

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17
Q

Action Potential

A

This is a rapid up and down shift in voltage which creates an all or nothing response. In order for this to occur a voltage threshold must occur at the trigger zone which once met causes a massive depolarisation (this causes a polarisation reversal to positive charge) very quickly which peaks and then causes the cell membrane to repolarised (becomes negatively charged again). During the repolarisation a hyperpolarisation occurs which ensures the action potential only travel in one direction and doesn’t go backward. This process doesn’t travel along the axon but instead causes a new depolarisation right in front of it until it reaches the end of the axon. This means that a nerve signal is a chain of these processes.

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18
Q

Refractory Period (RF)

A

During an action potential (AP) for a few milliseconds after it occurs it is impossible to restimulate that region to refire. This means that a new AP can’t occur and ensures the nerve impulse only moves forward and doesn’t move backward. This occurs in an absolute manner at first where it is impossible to trigger a new AP and then becomes a relative one where it is possible to trigger a new AP however it would need to see a massive inflow of ions to trigger it.

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19
Q

Synapse

A

The joining when one nerve meets another. There is no physical joint created in this scenario and a small amount of space is left between both neurons known as a synaptic cleft. The cell transmitting an electrical impulse to the other is known as the presynaptic neurons while the one receiving the impulse is known as the post-synaptic neuron.

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20
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

These are chemicals released by the presynaptic neuron which pass across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. These can cause inhibitory (hyperpolarisation) or excitatory (depolarisation) reactions. The net charge created from these chemicals in the postsynaptic neuron is known as the postsynaptic potential and the polarity of this charge is what determines whether this neuron will transmit the message on. If the charge is strong enough when it reaches the trigger zone (axon hillock) then the action potential will be generated and in a standard neuron 1000s of presynaptic neurons must send neurotransmitters for an action potential to occur.

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21
Q

Axonal Transport

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22
Q

Anterograde Transport

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23
Q

Retrograde Transport

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24
Q

Fast Axonal Transport

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25
Q

Slow Axonal Transport

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26
Q

Myelin

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27
Q

The Brain

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28
Q

Brain Arrangements

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29
Q

Neurulation

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30
Q

Germ Layers

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31
Q

Neural Crest Cells

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32
Q

Neural Plate

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33
Q

Notochord

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34
Q

Somites

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35
Q

Neural Tube

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36
Q

Neuropores

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37
Q

Oligodendrocytes

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38
Q

Astrocytes

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39
Q

Microglia

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40
Q

Ependymal Cells

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41
Q

Brain Structure

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42
Q

Brain Lobes

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43
Q

Brainstem

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44
Q

Central Sulcus

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45
Q

Insula

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46
Q

Brain Structure

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47
Q

Nucleus

A
48
Q

White Matter

A
49
Q

Cranium

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50
Q

Meninges

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51
Q

Dura Mater

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52
Q

Arachnoid Mater

A
53
Q

Pia Mater

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54
Q

Brain Ventricles

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55
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

A
56
Q

Apertures

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57
Q

CSF Flow

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58
Q

CSF Functions

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59
Q

Barriers

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60
Q

Blood-Brain Barrier

A
61
Q

Blood-CSF Barrier

A
62
Q

Cerebral Hemispheres

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63
Q

Left Hemisphere

A
64
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Right Hemisphere

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65
Q

Limbic System

A
66
Q

Cingulate Gyrus

A
67
Q

Amygdala

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68
Q

Hippocampus

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69
Q

Diencephalon

A

Meaning between brain. This consists of the thalamus and hypothalamus which becomes more visible once more of the surrounding area is removed.

70
Q

Thalamus

A

This consists of 2 ovoid masses which are superior to the brainstem, between the lateral and third ventricles. It is the ‘gateway’ to the cerebral cortex. It process nearly all sensory input to the cerebrum (taste, smell, hearing, vision, balance etc.). This works to screen out and process all of the sensory information and relay only a small amount to the cerebral cortex. This allows for focus and sleep. It also has motor functions which relay signals between the superficial and deep areas of the cerebrum and the cerebellum in order to regulate practiced behaviours and locomotion.

71
Q

Hypothalamus

A

This is just below the thalamus at the base of the 3rd ventricle. It is the major control center of the endocrine and autonomic nervous systems. It is involved in homeostatic regulation (normal functioning) of all organs. It houses 10 nuclei to deal with Thirst, water balance, temperature, appetite, growth, hormone and reproduction, childbirth/lactation/orgasm, biological clock, long term memory and emotion. This is the structure that the pituitary gland is attached to by a thin stalk.

72
Q

Cerebellum

A

This has 2 hemispheres with 10% of brain mass, 60% of the surface area of the cerebrum and more than 50% of the brains neurons. It has gray matter outside and white and gray matter (nuclei) within. It is directly connected with the brain stem (medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain). It has extensive input and output from the spinal cord and cerebral hemispheres. This helps it to monitor muscle contractions and aids in motor coordination (fluidity). It is a timekeeper to judge the interval between 2 stimuli to predict where moving objects will be, it compensates for head movement to keep eyes on an object and has sensory, linguistic, hearing and emotional functions.

73
Q

Brainstem

A

This consists of the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata. This is made up of outer white matter and gray matter (nuclei) inside.

74
Q

Midbrain

A

This contains the cerebral aqueduct, connects the forebrain (cerebrum and diencephalon) to the hindbrain (Pons, cerebellum and medulla oblongata). It houses visual and auditory control centers for reflexes, it has roles in fine motor control and suppression of unwanted body movement of which degeneration can lead to Parkinson’s disease.

75
Q

Pons

A

This is the anterior portion of the brainstem and consists of a white matter portion that connects the 2 sides of the cerebellum and carries sensory and motor information up and down the brainstem. It has some gray matter which has nuclei for sleep respiration and posture.

76
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A

This contains all nerve fibers connecting the brain and spinal cord pass through. There many neural nextworks of which some are ascending (sensory) and others are descending (motor). 90% of nerve fibers cross over at the pyramidal decussation as nuclei influence the rate and force of heart beat, blood pressure, rhythm and depth of breathing.

77
Q

Reticular Formation

A

Gray matter within the brainstem which provides somatic motor control, cardiovascular control, pain modulation, sleep, habituation and consciousness.

78
Q

Cranial Nerves

A

There are 12 of these with most originating from the brain stem except for 2 which are the olfactory and optic nerves. All of them exit the skull through foramina (holes) to form parts of the PNS. Almost all innervate muscles and sense organs are located in the head and neck. They are generally classified as either sensory, motor or mixed function.

79
Q

Motor Cranial Nerves

A

These can be somatic (skeletal muscle) or autonomic (cardiac/smooth muscle and glands). The important one to remember is the oculomotor nerve which contains sensory fibers related to muscle function (proprioception).

80
Q

Sensory Cranial Nerves

A

The important ones to remember are the Olfactory and Optic nerves. These are the only 2 true sensory nerves without motor functions.

81
Q

Mixed Cranial Nerves

A

Some good examples are the facial nerves (motor control of facial muscles and sensory functions in the nasal cavity), glossopharyngeal nerve and Vagus nerve.

82
Q

Spinal Cord

A

This is part of CNS. IT is protected by the vertebral column, meninges and CSF. This weighs 35g on average and is 45cm in length on average. It starts at the foramen magnum of the occipital bond and occupies the upper 2/3 of the vertebral column and ends at the L1-2 as the vertebral column grows faster. It gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nerves. It is composed of an outer white matter (myelinated axons) and the inside of gray matter (cell bodies, ganglia and dendrites). It functions to conduct information around the body, connects the brain and other sections of it, neural integration (multiple inputs -> integrates -> appropriate output) and involved in reflexes.

83
Q

Spinal Cord Neurons

A

These are mostly multipolar which have glia as supporting cells.

84
Q

Spinal Nerve Neurons

A

These are mostly unipolar sensory neurons and multipolar motor neurons which have Schwann cells as supporting cells.

85
Q

Central Canal

A

The remainder of the neural canal during development in the centre of the spinal cord which has some CSF.

86
Q

Rootlets

A

These consist or dorsal and ventral types. The dorsal ones consist of sensory functions whereas the ventral ones consist of motor functions. These will group up in order to form roots of the same kind.

87
Q

Roots

A

These are made up of either sensory rootlets or motor rootlets. These will combine in order to form spinal nerves.

88
Q

Spinal Nerves

A

These are made up of a sensory and motor root. This means they are have mixed function meaning they receive and send message. There are 31 pairs. The spinal cord ends at lumbar vertebra 1-2. The names of spinal nerves reflex the level of the vertebral column when are on.

89
Q

Spinal Cord Gray Matter

A

Within the spinal cord the multipolar nerve cell bodies of motor neurons and interneurons form a section known as the ventral horn whereas the nerve cell bodies of sensory neurons forms a section known as the dorsal horn.

90
Q

Input & Output

A

The inputs are received from somatic areas (tactile receptors and proprioceptors) and visceral areas (baroreceptors and chemoreceptors). Outputs are sent to visceral/autonomic areas (cardiac/smooth muscle, glands) and somatic areas (skeletal muscle).

91
Q

Tracts

A

The white matter of the spinal cord forms these which are made up of bundles of axons that travel up and down the spinal cord.

92
Q

Polio

A

Poliomyelitis is the full name (polio = grey and myelon = marrow). It is a crippling and potentially fatal infectious illness unique to humans and spreads through food and water from one person to another through fecal-oral route. This virus spends most of its time in the gut however occasionally gets into the CNS and can cause spinal polio. Spinal Polio is an inflammation of the motor neurons in the ventral horn of spinal cord (brain stem or motor cortex can also be affected) with this death of motor neurons causing paralysis for life with no cure. There is a vaccine for prevention.

93
Q

Spinal Cord Meninges

A

In this case these are very similar to how it is in the brain however there are some differences. These differences are only a single layer of dura mater, fat is present (holds spinal cord in place), the pia mater anchors the spinal to the sacrum with a structure called the filium terminale and contains denticulate ligaments which anchors to the dura mater in order to prevent excess movement of the spinal cord. Due to the shorter spinal cord there is the ability to inject things into and take samples of CSF without causing excess harm.

94
Q

Vertebral Column

A

This consists of 4 sections in adults with the cervical (7), thoracic (12), lumbar (5) and sacral and coccygeal (5 and 4). The sacral and coccygeal section fuse during development.

95
Q

Intervertebral Foramen

A

These are holes in the vertebrae which allows the spinal nerves to exit into the PNS. These are the boundary between the CNS and PNS.

96
Q

Intervertebral Disc

A

These have soft centers surrounded by tough fibrous rings which sit between vertebrae. These can scrape against the spinal cord creating pain which can relieve itself or may require surgery.

97
Q

Clauda Equina

A

Nerve roots in the vertebral canal L2-S5.

98
Q

Vertebral Column Names

A

C = cervical, T = thoracic, L = lumbar, S = sacral, Co = coccygeal.

99
Q

Cervical Spinal Nerves

A

These are named differently because there are 8 with only 7 cervical vertebrae. C1-7 exit above vertebral bodies 1-7 while C8 exits below vertebral body C7. The other nerves exit below the associated vertebral body.

100
Q

Segment

A

The name given to the part of the body supplied by each pair of spinal nerves.

101
Q

Nerves of Limbs

A

There are enlargements in the cervical and lumbar regions in order to facilitate for the extra length of our limbs.

102
Q

White-Gray Matter Ratio

A

The cervical region has the largest ratio of white to gray matter whereas the sacral region has the lowest white to gray matter ratio. This follows a patterns as the higher you go the higher the proportion of white matter.

103
Q

Ramus

A

These are the splits of spinal nerves directly after they leave the intervertebral foramen. The main branches are the dorsal primary ramus (this innervates deep back muscles and the associated dermic) and the ventral primary ramus (innervates everything else).

104
Q

Spinal Nerve Plexuses

A

This is formed by the ventral rami where they branch and merge repeatedly to form webs of nerves. This occurs in all regions of the vertebrae apart from the thoracic region. Cervical = innervation of parts of face, neck, diaphragm, brachial = innervation of upper limb, lumbar = innervation of pelvic region and lower limb, sacral = innervation of pelvic region and lower limb (lumbosacral plexus), coccygeal = innervates a small region over the coccyx. These consist of afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) nerves. This results in named nerves arising from a plexus receiving contributions from several spinal nerves which functions for protection to ensure that damage to a particular nerve won’t completely remove an ability to feel or move something. These also occur in the autonomic nervous system.

105
Q

Dermatomes

A

These are related to sensory inputs from the skin. All spinal nerves except C1 receive sensory input from a specific band/region of skin. The cutaneous skin regions innervated by each spinal nerve and these overlap at the edges.

106
Q

Diagnose Shingles

A

The distribution of lesions follow dermatomes. The virus is kept in check by the immune system. If the immune system is compromised the virus can travel via fast axonal transport along sensory nerve fibers to the skin. This can cause blisters and sometimes intense pain with no known cure. The only way to prevent it is with a vaccine.

ANHB1102 (8 decks)

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