Neurology and Behaviour Flashcards
(101 cards)
1
Q
What are the three main regions of the brain?
A
The forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
2
Q
What are the three membranes the brain is surrounded by?
A
Meninges- dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater.
3
Q
What is the function of the meninges?
A
Protection of the brain.
4
Q
What occurs when the meninges are inflamed?
A
Meningitis.
5
Q
What are the function of the four ventricles in the brain?
A
Filled with cerebro-spinal fluid, supply the neurones with oxygen and glucose.
6
Q
What does the forebrain consist of?
A
Cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus and hippocampus.
7
Q
What does the midbrain consist of?
A
Nerve fibres connected the fore and hindbrain.
8
Q
What does the hindbrain consist of?
A
Medulla oblongata and cerebellum.
9
Q
What is the function of the medulla oblongta?
A
It controls heart rate, ventilation and blood pressure. It contains centres of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
10
Q
What is the function of the cerebellum?
A
It maintains posture and co-ordination of voluntary muscle activity.
11
Q
What is the function of the cerebrum?
A
It controls voluntary behaviour, learning, reasoning, personality and memory.
12
Q
What is the function of the hypothalamus?
A
It regulates body temperature, blood solute concentration, thirst, hunger and sleep. It is the main controlling region of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and links the brain to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
13
Q
What is the function of the thalamus?
A
It is a relay centre sending information to and from the cortex.
14
Q
What is the function of the hippocampus?
A
It interacts with areas of the cortex involved with learning, reasoning, personality and consolidating memories into a permanent store.
15
Q
Describe the sympathetic division of the ANS
A
Stress response, excitatory effect, uses noradrenaline as a neurotransmitter.
16
Q
Describe the parasympathetic division of the ANS
A
Peace response, inhibitory effect, uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.
17
Q
How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems work together?
A
They work antagonistically, as opposing signals from neurones in both systems work to adjust an organs activity to an appropriate level.
18
Q
What does the limbic system consist of?
A
The hypothalamus, thalamus and hippocampus. This system is involved with emotion, learning and memory.
19
Q
How are the two hemispheres of the cerebrum linked?
A
They are linked by the corpus callosum.
20
Q
What is the cerebral cortex?
A
The outer layer of the cerebrum, it is highly folded to increase surface area for processing. It is composed of millions of neurones and is grey matter with many cell bodies. It is responsible for most conscious thoughts and actions.
21
Q
What does the inner part of the cerebrum contain?
A
Myelinated white matter.
22
Q
What are the subdivisions of each cerebral hemisphere?
A
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Temporal lobe
Occipital lobe
23
Q
What does the frontal lobe control?
A
Reasoning, planning, part of speech and movement, emotions and problem solving,
24
Q
What does the parietal lobe control?
A
Sensory functions and taste.
25
What does the temporal lobe control?
Language, learning and memory.
26
What does the occipital lobe control?
Vision.
27
What are the cerebral cortex subdivisions?
Somatosensory cortex
Somatomotor cortex
Association areas
28
What is the function of the somatosensory cortex?
It receives nerve impulses from receptors.
29
What is the function of the somatomotor cortex?
It sends nerve impulses to effectors.
30
What is the function of the association areas?
They form most of the cerebral cortex. They receive impulses from sensory areas and associate it with previously stored information from memory so that is can be interpreted and given meaning to initiate appropriate responses.
31
Why does each hemisphere control the opposite side of the body?
As nerve fibres from the motor area cross in the medulla oblongata, so the left hemisphere controls the right side of t he body and vice versa.
32
Where is Broca's area located?
In the frontal lobe, just above the temporal lobe in the left hemisphere.
33
What is the function of Broca's area?
Motor neurones from here innervate the muscles involved with speech (larynx, mouth and intercostals).
34
What occurs if Broca's area is damaged?
Speech can be understood but speaking is in short sentences, lacking fluency.
35
Where is Wernicke's area located?
It spans the upper part of the temporal lobe and the lower part of the parietal lobe in the left hemisphere.
36
What is the function of Wernicke's area?
It is responsible for interpreting written and spoken language.
37
What occurs if Wernicke's area is damaged?
Speech cannot be understood but fluency is unaffected.
38
How are Broca's and Wernicke's area connected?
By a bundle of nerve fibres called arcuate fascilus.
39
What are the sensory and motor homunculi?
They are models showing the relative proportions of the sensory and motor areas of the body.
40
What areas contain many sensory neurones, as indicated by the sensory homunculi?
Tongue, lips and fingertips. These are the most sensitive areas.
41
What areas contain many motor neurones, as indicated by the motor homunculi?
Hands and face. These areas can perform intricate movements.
42
What are the different types of brain imaging methods?
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Computerised tomography (CT)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Position emission tomography (PET)
43
What are the advantages and disadvantages of EEG and how is the image produced?
Image made by: Electrodes on scalp, records electrical activity
Advantages: Non invasive, no claustrophobia or staying still, no radioactivity or magnetic fields
Disadvantages: Only detects activity in the cortex
44
What are the advantages and disadvantages of CT and how is the image produced?
Image made by: X-rays from different angles
Advantages: Fast results for the whole body, can look at areas from different angles
Disadvantages: Uses x-rays, images not as clear as MRI, only shows structural features
45
What are the advantages and disadvantages of MRI and how is the image produced?
Image made by: Strong magnetic fields
Advantages: More sensitive than CT, good contrast, no radiation
Disadvantages: Claustrophobic, noisy, patient lies completely still, magnetic fields involved so not for people with cochlear implants or pace makers
46
What are the advantages and disadvantages of fMRI and how is the image produced?
Image made by: Strong magnetic fields, radio waves to measure oxygen demand
Advantages: Shows regions of the brain which are most active and therefore functioning
Disadvantages: Claustrophobic, noisy, patient lies completely still, magnetic fields involved so not for people with cochlear implants or pace makers
47
What are the advantages and disadvantages of PET and how is the image produced?
Image made by: Radioactive glucose use
Advantages: Shows functioning areas of the brain
Disadvantages: Uses gamma radiation
48
What is neuroplasticity?
The brains ability to form new connections between neurones in response to new information, sensory stimulation, development or damage. Allowing the brain to change and adapt through life.
49
What is developmental plasticity?
Young brains rapidly form branches and connections between neurones. During this critical period, sensory input is required for proper development.
50
What is synaptic pruning?
Losing unused connections as the brain develops. This happens mostly in adolescence.
51
What is epigenetics?
The influence of chemicals like methyl and acetyl on gene expression.
52
What are epigenetic changes involved in?
Brain conditions, such as mental illness and addiction.
53
How are abused children affected by epigenetic changes?
They are at least 50% more likely than the general population to suffer from serious depression as adults, and it is also harder for them to recover.
54
How are adults subjected to childhood abuse affected by epigenetic changes?
They are at a higher risk of developing schizophrenia, eating disorders, personality disorders, bipolar disease and anxiety. They are also more likely to abuse drugs or alcohol.
55
Who is cortisol levels much higher in and why?
Individuals subjected to childhood abuse, as they have higher levels of CRH and therefore cortisol. The feedback loop is faulty and they are continually overstressed.
56
Describe the negative feedback loop of cortisol release
Stress causes the hippocampus to send nerve impulses to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus releases cortico-trophin-releasing hormone (CRH) which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotrophin hormone (ACTH). This circulates in the bloodstream and links to the receptors on the cortex of the adrenal gland which releases cortisol. As cortisol levels increases, the hippocampus is inhibited, preventing the individual from being continually stressed.
57
What are innate behaviours?
Behaviours that are inherited and 'instinctive'. Such as reflexes, taxes and kineses.
58
How are innate behaviours studied?
Using choice chambers where different conditions are supplied in each section and movement of animals tracked.
59
Describe a reflex
Rapid, automatic response to a stimulus with a protective function that enhances survival.
60
Give an example of a reflex behaviour
The iris muscles changing the pupil size in response to light intensity.
61
Describe taxes
A directional response by the whole organism moving towards (positive) or away from (negative) a stimulus.
62
Give an example of taxes behaviour
Aerobic bacteria moving towards oxygen.
63
Describe kineses
A non-directional, random movement of a whole organism. In unfavourable conditions, the organism moves quickly with few turns. In favourable conditions, the organism moves slowly with more turns.
64
Give an example of kineses behaviour
A flatworms rate of turning increases in light and decreases in darkness.
65
What are learned behaviours?
Behaviours that are based on past experiences, and can be modified. Such as habituation, imitation, insight learning, latent learning, operant conditioning, classical conditioning and imprinting.
66
Describe habituation
Learning to ignore a stimulus as it brings neither reward or punishment.
67
Give an example of habituation
Tapping on a snails shell causes it to retreat, but after several taps it stops retreating.
68
Describe imitation
Where animals learn by observing others.
69
Give an example of imitation
The spread of tool use in chimps.
70
Describe insight learning
Where a solution to a problem is found by accident but is immediately applied in the future.
71
Give an example of insight learning
A crow bending a wire into a hook shape which it then uses to pull food out of a tube.
72
Describe latent learning
Exploratory learning. Animals explore new surroundings and learn which enhances survival.
73
Give an example of latent learning
Ants exploring a table which they later return to to find food.
74
Describe operant conditioning
The association of particular behaviours with reward or punishment.
75
Give an example of operant conditioning
A rat pulling a lever for food.
76
Describe classical conditioning
An artificial stimulus associated with a natural stimulus provoking the same response.
77
Give an example of classical conditioning
A child feeling nauseous when receiving food in a particular bowl.
78
Describe imprinting
Happens early in young animals, where they become attached to the first larger moving object they detect.
79
Give an example of imprinting
Mallards becoming attached to coloured spheres after hatching.
80
What did Lorenz work on?
Imprinting in greylag geese chicks. He acted as their mother and taught them to fly.
81
What did Pavlov work on?
Classical conditioning in dogs. They were trained to associate a bell with food and would salivate whenever it would ring.
82
What did Skinner work on?
Operant conditioning in rats. They were rewarded for pushing a lever with a food pellet.
83
What did Kohler work on?
Insight learning in chimpanzees. He put bananas out of the chimps reach and they figured out how to join sticks together to reach them and repeated this each time.
84
What are the advantages to living in a social group?
Protection from predators
Food sharing
Mate availability
85
What are the disadvantages to living in a social group?
Increased competition for resources, mates and food
Increased spread of disease
Higher visibility to predators
86
What is a fixed action pattern (FAP)?
A sign stimulus leading to a fixed response.
87
What is the FAP in herring gulls?
The sign stimulus is the red spot on the parent beak. The response is to peck at the spot until the adults regurgitates the food.
88
What does a FAP depend on?
It depends on motivation. For example, a cheetah will only display stalking behabiour if it is hungry.
89
What are social behaviours?
Interactions between members of the same species.
90
Describe a bees social group
Bees live in a caste structure. A single queen in a colony produces sterile female workers and fertile male drones.
91
How do queens communicate with the rest of the bees of the colony?
Through pheromones and touch.
92
How do bees communicate with the other bees of the colony about food sources?
Waggle dance- the angle of the dance relates to the angle of the sun and the length of the waggle relates to the distance.
Round dance- used when a food source is close by but gives no information about distance.
93
Why are courtship behaviours useful?
They ensure species and gender recognition, receptiveness to mating, maintain pair bonds for care of the young, enhancing their survival.
94
What type of behaviour is courtship behaviours?
They are innate and often follow a FAP.
95
What is sexual dimorphism?
The genders of a species having different appearances.
96
What is intra-sexual selection?
Male-to-male combat. The larger, more aggressive males are selected.
97
What is inter-sexual selection?
Where the female chooses the 'fittest' male.
98
What is a territory?
An area constantly defended against members of the same species, allowing efficient exploration of resources.
99
What are the different forms of defence?
Display, vocalisations and scent-making.
100
What is a dominance hierarchy?
Where the members of the group are ranked from high to low: Higher ranked animals dominate over the lower ranked in linear fashion and no two animals are the same rank.
101
What are the advantages of a dominance hierarchy?
Reduction in aggression
Sharing food ensures the 'fittest' survive
