Neuropsychology 2307 Midterm #2 Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
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neurolinguistics
A
the neural mechanisms in the brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language
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Segmented Bilateral Organism
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- Local, centralized networks within each segment
- Longitudinal transmission of information up and down the body axis between segments
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Decussation of vertebrate brains
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All vertebrate brains are crossed over: left connects with the right side of the body and vice versa
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Broca’s area
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region in left frontal lobe for speech production
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Golgi’s stain
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sliced brain then stained it to see nerve cell bodies / tissue / individual neurons under light microscopy
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Fritsch & Hitzig
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electrical stimulation of dog’s brain to identify motor cortex
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Neuron
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cell in nervous system specialized to transmit electrical signals to other neurons via synapses
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Glia
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provide immunological and structural support; aid in transport of material from blood to neuron; largest number of cells in CNS
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Nerve
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when neuron axon is in the PNS
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Tract
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when neuron axon is in the CNS
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Afferent
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towards the brain (sensory)
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Efferent
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away from the brain (motor)
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Grey matter
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unmyelinated cells and dendrites of neuron - cognition
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white matter
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bundles of myelinated axons that connect grey matter to each other & carry nerve impulses - acting / sensing
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Parenchyma
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functional tissue of an organ (neurons and glia)
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Ipsilateral
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on the same side
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Contralateral
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on opposite side
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bilateral
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on both sides / in both hemispheres
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proximal
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near to the structure
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distal
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far from the structure
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ganglion
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cluster of cells in the PNS; can form swelling on nerve fibre
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sagittal
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YZ plane; divides structure into left/right; parallel to sagittal suture
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coronal
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XY plane; divides it into front and back
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Dorsal
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towards the top (or back); posterior (behind)
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ventral
towards the belly or bottom (inferior)
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caudal
tail
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rostral
nose or anterior or frontal
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medial
midline
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superior
above
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inferior
below
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Graded potential
changes in membrane potential that vary in size, as opposed to being all-or-none; amplitude is proportional to the strength of the stimulus (NOT all or none)
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Neurons
Electrically irritable communicating and computing cells of the nervous system
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Glia
supporting cells: provide immunological and structural support, aid in transfer of materals from blood to neurons, etc.
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Action potential
movement of sodium and potassium across the cell membrane; electrical signal that allows neurons to communicate quickly over long distances (frequency proportional to stimulus intensity)
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Intra / extra neuronal signals
signals within neuron is electrical; between neuron it's chemical
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Types of Neurons
* **sensory neurons** (carrying information from receptors to the brain),
* **motor neurons** (carrying signals from the brain to muscles) and
* **interneurons** (which convey information between different types of neurons
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neurotransmitter
chemical messenger; transmit signals from one neuron across a synapse to another neuron or muscle cell or gland cell
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Synaptic Transmission
* changes in the electrical properties of the receiving neuron.
* these changes are called “postsynaptic potentials”
* Post-synaptic potentials are within the receiving neuron’s dendritic tree
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Post Synaptic Potentials PSP's
* Excitatory Post Synaptic Potentials (EPSPs) created in the receiving neuron’s dendrites **increase** the likelihood of the production of an AP on its axon
* Inhibitory Post Synaptic Potentials (IPSPs) created in the receiving neuron’s dendrites **decrease** the likelihood of the
* EPSPs and IPSPs are integrated in the soma over both space and time
* Whether an AP is created in the axon hillock depends upon the nature of this sum.
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synaptic cleft
space between the pre and post synaptic neurons; interstitium
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Astrocyte
glia that regulates transmission of electrical signals within the brain; feeds, supports and holds neurons in place
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Microglia
"pac-men", main immune defense in CNS; eats anything foreign that could damage CNS
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Ependymal glia
pump CSF into ventricles; produce CSF; keep producing
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Oligodendrocytes
Glia that make myelin; insulate axons in CNS; don't regenerate; can myelinate many neurons
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Schwann cells
Glia that myelinate axons in PNS (one Schwann cell will myelinate one segment of an axon); can self-repair
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Neuron doctrine
(Cajal) nerous system is made up of discrete and individual cells
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Law of Dynamic Polarization
Flow is L to R from dendrite to axon terminals
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Dale's Law
each nerve terminal releases a single type of neurotransmiter
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Parts of a Neuron
Dendrite, Soma and Axon
* Dendrite: collects the incoming signals
* Soma: integrates signals generates the ones to travel down axon
* Axon: Conducts the signals across distances
All parts: Dendrite, Axon, Soma, Hillock, Terminal Boutons, Cytoplasm, Membranes (pre synapt and post synapt), Nucleus, Organelles
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Integrated
added together, summed up
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Cytoplasm
Jelly like substance in the cell body (proteins, ions)
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Axon Hillock
part of the soma that connects to the axon
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Organelle
tiny cellular structure that performs specific functions within a cell. Organelles are embedded within the cytoplasm of cells
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Terminal Button
structure at end of axon that could have synapse on it
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Post-synaptic membrane
on dendritic tree of the receiving neuron
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Neural stem cell
Can self-renew (mitosis), lead to progenitor cells
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Progenitor cells
develop from stem cells - lead to Blasts
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Blasts
primitive nervous system cells, develop into neurons and glia
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Differences between neurons
1. dendritic tree complexity
2. types of receptors
3. types of NT's
4. axonal length
5. arrangement of cell body to axon
6. spatial and temporal integration
7. physical size
8. degree of axonal myelination
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Divisions of Nervous System
1. CNS - brain and spinal cord
2. PNS - Somatic and Autonomic nervous system
Somatic - sensorimotor connections via spinal cord and cranial nerves
Autonomic -sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves
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Somatic nervous system
in PNS; detects info about external world; sensorimotor connections from spinal cord and cranial nerves
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Support and Protection of CNS
1. Skull (brain pan) and vertebrae (33)
2. Meninges
3. Cerebrospinal Fluid
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Meninges
3 membranes that enclose the CNS: Dura mater, Arachnoid mater, Pia mater (closest to cortex)
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Cerebrospinal fluid
cushions the brain and spinal cord; produced in the ventricles (ependymal glia) recycled through the ventricle system; complete cycle every 24 hours
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Brain Blood Supply
**L&R Carotid Arteries** and **L&R Vertebral Arteries** ascend in the neck to enter the skull through the foramen magnum to supply blood to the brain. Connect at base of brain for form:
–Anterior Cerebral Artery
–Middle Cerebral Artery
–Posterior Cerebral Artery
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Meningeal Blood Supply
* Anterior Meningeal Artery -- irrigates the anterior cranial fossa
* Middle Meningeal Artery -- irrigates the middle cranial fossa
* Posterior Meningeal Artery --irrigates the posterior cranial fossa
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Fossa
3 large depressions in the floor of the cranial activity (posterior fossa lodges cerebellum, medulla & pons)
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Foramen magnum
hole at base of the skull (floor of fossa) through which spinal cord and vertebral arteries
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Cranial arteries
4 of them: L&R Carotid, L&R Vertebral; supply blood to the brain; branch into anterior, middle and posterior arteries; each irrigates its own fossa
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Basilar artery
irrigates the brain stem; at front of brain stem. forms from joining of two vertebral arteries
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Circle of Willis
brain's arteries; blood flows to the brain from vertebral and internal carotid arteries
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Hematoma
bleed from artery or vein within brain; the wall of a blood vessel, artery, vein has been damaged and blood has leaked into tissues where it does not belong.
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Subdural hematoma
blood below the skull and Dura mater; bleeding of bridging veins
Symptoms:
slurred speech / headache / inability to speak /
loss of consciousness or coma / numbness (may be in several areas of the body) / seizures / visual problems
weakness
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Epidural hematoma
bleeding of meningeal arteries (between Dura and skull); medical emergency; can produce shift midline
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Cribreform plate
between anterior cranial fossa and nasal cavity; olifactory afferents pass through here
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Ventricular system
4 ventricles in brain plus the cerebral aqueduct; filled with CSF; connects 3rd and 4th ventricles for CSF flow
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hydrocephalus
if CSF can't get out through aqueduct so need stent to let the fluid out
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Telencephalon
cerebrum; cerebral cortices; lobes: frontal, parietal, occiptal, temporal, insular
Basal ganglia
Basal forebrain nuclei
Subcortical white matter
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Diencephalon
forebrain; neocortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus
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Mesencephalon
Mid-brain; part of brain stem
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Metencephalon
embryonic part of hind brain that becomes pons and cerebellum
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Myelencephalon
After brain; embryonic part of hind brain that develops into medulla oblongata
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Cerebral cortex
80% human brain; 6 layers (older cortex - allocortex has 3 layers and thinner); 2 hemispheres; bilaterally symmetrical but not mirror images functionally
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Neocortex
* 80% human brain
* expanded most during evolution
* 6 layers - no myelin (layer IV important as it receives info from outside the cortex and V &VII go outside cortex)
* Allocortex 3 layers which are thinner (hippocampus and olifactory bulb)
* two cerebral hemispheres
* frontal lobes larger than primates
* right under the Pia mater
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Fissures, Sulci and Gyri
* Fissure - cleft in the cortex that is deep enough to indent the ventricles
* Sulcus (pl. sulci) - shallow cleft in the cortex
* Gyrus (pl. gyri) - ridge in the cortex
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Organization of the Cortex
* Primary - receive and send info to and from PNS
* Secondary - receive input from Primary; interpret sensory input or organize movement
* Tertiary - (Association Cortex) - mediate complex activities
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Cytoarchitectonic maps of Cerebral Cortex
map of the brain based on organization, structure and distribution of the cells
Broadman's atlas (44 areas)
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Forebrain
1. Neocortex
2. Basal Ganglia
3. Limbic System
2 and 3 are subcortical
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Limbic System
* In telencephalon and diencephalon
* functionally and anatomically connected
* Amygdala - Emotion and species-typical behaviors
* Hippocampus - Memory and spatial navigation
* Septum - Emotion and species-typical behavior
* Cingulate Cortex (cingulate gyrus)- - emotion formation, learning and memory
* limbic cortex is immediately superior to the corpus collosum (dammage pathinomic)
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Basal Ganglian
* Putamen, Globus Pallidus, Caudate Nucleus (stimulus response learning / sequencing)
* Sub-thalamic
* supports complex movements and computations (disorders of this area will be movement-oriented)
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Diencephalon
* Hypothalamus - interacts with pituitary gland, movatied behavior, affects metabolism
* Thalamus
* Pineal gland
* Posterior Pituitary
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Thalamus
Thalamus relays info to targets (it bridges the cortex and spinal cord) and projects it back
\*\*can modify info on way to the cortex
controls sleep and awake state
Thalamus is in 2 halves
Receives auditory, somatosensory and visual signals
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Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus regulates temperature, when should eat and when stop eating, hormones, circadian rhythm and more
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Midbrain / Mesencephalon
* top of the brain stem
* Cerebral peduncles: connec the cortex, cerebellum and spinal cord
* Tectum (ceiling) inf.(ears) and sup. colliculi (eyes)
* Tegmentum (midbrain floor) surrounds cerebral aqueduct - eye movements and tracking
* cortical blindness: get input from retina so avoid objects but not sure why (act like you can see)
* Red nucleus - limb movements
* Periaqueductal grey matter: species-typical behavirs (sexual behavior and pain response)
* Substantia Nigra - reward / initiation (dopamine)
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Metencephalon
Pons and Cerebellum (litle brain)
* Pons connects cortex and cerebellum
* Cerebellum - sensorimotor integration
* If damage cerebellum lose equilibrium (wide stance like a toddler), impairment to skilled motor activity
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Myelencephalon
Medulla Oblongata
* cardiac and respiratory functions; reflex centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, etc.
* reflexive processes
* reticular formation: arousal level (like 2 hot dogs)
* vision, hearing, somatosensory signals thru here
* Pyramids: in medulla
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Cranial Nerves
* 12 pairs (24 nerves)
* in PNS called nerves / in CNS called tracts
* cranial nerves pass through the meninges (which determines what is CNS/PNS) so technially CNS too
* descend from brain stem (anterior)
* superior to inferior
* sensory and motor functions (some just one)
* On Old Olympus’ Towering Top A Finn and German Vend Some Hops...Some say marry money but my brother says big boobs matter more
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List Cranial Nerves
1. Olfactory
2. Occiptal
3. Oculomotor
4. Trochlear
5. Trigeminal
6. Abducens
7. Facial
8. Auditory (vestibulocochlear)
9. Glossopharygeal
10. Vagus
11. Spinal Accessory
12. Hypoglossal
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Spinal Cord
* 31 segments - each one 2 pairs somatic nerves
* L Sensory - enter L Dorsal
* R Sensory - enter R Dorsal
* L Motor - exit L Ventral
* R Motor - exit R Ventral
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Bell Magendie Law
SAME DAVE
**S** - Sensory **A** - Afferent **M** - Motor **E** - Efferent
**D** - Dorsal **A** - Afferent **V** - Ventral **E** - Efferent
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Myotome
* Muscle and nerve collectively
Examples:
* Cervical 3, 4, 5 Diaphram
* Cervical 5 Shoulder movements / elbow flexion
* Cervical 6 - wrist dorsiflex
* Cervical 7 - elbow extension
* Cervical 8 finger flexion
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Dermatome
an area of the skin supplied by nerves from a single spinal root.
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Thickenings in Spinal Cord
1. Cervical Enlargement - innervates upper limbs through brachial Plexus
2. Lumbar Enlargement - innervates lower limbs
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Central Pattern Generators
* provide rhythmic patterned outputs without sensory feedback
* neuronal circuits
* in all evolved animals with locomotion (relieves us from having to calculate how to do something like walk or breathe)
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Autonomic Nervous System
1. Sympathetic (Fight or Flight) - arouses body for action - Stimulatory
2. Parasympathetic - (Rest and Digest) - Inhibitory
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Tractography
Traces axon bundles through the brain in 3D
Mapping connection amongst brain areas
1. Long connections - one lobe to another
2. Relatively short connections - one part of lobe to another part same lobe
3. **Interhemisphereic connections**: homotopic points (in "typcial" brain) and heterotopic points (in patients with Agenisis of Corpus Collosum AgCC) - missing part of CC
4. The connection is through Thalamus
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Commissures
* Contralateral white matter projections
* CNS connects mainly with contralateral body
* **Decussations**: sensory and motor fibres **cross the midline** at the spinal cord, corpus collosum and anterior and posterior commissures
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Corpus Collosum
9 components
1. Rostrum
2. Inferior Genu
3. Superior Genu
4. Posterior Genu
5. Anterior midbody
6. Middle midbody
7. Posterior midbody
8. Isthmus
9. Splenium
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Brain Commissures
1. **Corpus Collosum**
2. **Anterior Commissure**
3. Hippocampal Commissure
4. Habenular Commissure
5. **Posterior Commissure**
6. Supraoptic Commissures
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Diffusion Tensor Imaging
* Tracks flow of water
* Measures direction and get picture of region of brain where water flow signal is large
* travels on large tracs, axonal fibres
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Arcuate Fasciculus
* curved bundle
* grey matter tract that connects Broca's Area (production of speech) with Wernicke's area (comprehension of speech)
* Wernicke's Aphasia: can produce speech but it is garble and
* Broca patients can understand but not really speak
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Development of Myelination
1. central to peripheral
2. caudal to rostral - frontal lobes last to myelinate and can take into 20's
3. dorsal to ventral
4. sensory then motor
5. Last areas to myelinate:
* anterior cingulate cortex
* inferior temporal cortex
* dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
