Niche Paper One Bits Flashcards
(187 cards)
1
Q
Glucose is a ….
A
Hexose sugar
2
Q
Glucose isomers
A
Alpha g
Beta g
3
Q
Result of condensation reaction
A
New chemical bond
4
Q
Sugars in general
A
Monosaccharides and disaccharides
5
Q
Reducing sugar
A
- all monosaccharides
- some disaccharides - LACTOSE AND MALTOSE
6
Q
Reducing sugar test
A
- add Benedict’s FIRST
- ## heat on water bath - UNTIL BOILS
7
Q
How much Benedict’s
A
Always in excess to react with ALL the sugar
8
Q
More coloured precipitate
A
More sugar in the solution
9
Q
Non-reducing sugar
A
Sucrose - must be broken down first into monosaccharides to be tested and detected
10
Q
No reducing sugar test
A
- DILUTE hcl acid to break into monosaccharides
- careful heat until boil
- neutralise with sodium hydrogen carbonate
- then repeat normal b test
11
Q
What is b test is blue
A
No sugar
12
Q
Where do plants and animals store glucose
A
Starch in plants
Glycogen in animals
13
Q
Reason why starch is such good storage
A
INSOLUBLE
Doesn’t affect water potential
Doest cause water to enter cells making them swell
14
Q
What is vital for iodine test
A
POTASSIUM IODIDE SOLUTION
15
Q
Cellulose, amylose, amylopectin is …..
A
LONG
16
Q
Tail of triglyceride
A
HYDROCARBON
Hydrophobic
Fatty acids
17
Q
Hydrophobic
A
Repel water molecules
18
Q
Basic fatty acid structure
A
HO—C=O
R is variable
OH (what is removed in cond.)
Carbon binds fatty acid to glycerol (ester)
19
Q
Two kinds of fatty acids (differences in r groups)
A
Unsaturated - One or more Double carbon bonds
Causes kink
20
Q
Properties of triglycerides
A
Insoluble - doesn’t affect water potential
Long hydrocarbon tail = lots of chemical energy
Release loads of energy when broken down
Clumps to make insoluble droplets
Make a ball with hydrophobic tails on inside
21
Q
Phospholipids
A
- control what leaves and enters cells
- double layer
- barrier
22
Q
Emulsion
A
Add ethanol
Shake to dissolve
Add water
Milky emulsion
23
Q
In emulsion test why add more liquid
A
More noticeable emulsion will be
24
Q
Groups in amino acids
A
Carboxyl
Amine
R
25
Glycine
Only amino acids with no carbon on side group and only one h atom in r group
26
How many Amino acids
20
27
Ionic bonds in tertiary structure
Attractions between negative and positive charges in different part of the molecule
28
How do disulfide bridges form
When two molecule of amino acid cysteine come closer together
- sulfur atom in one cysteine bond to the sulfur atom in the other
29
Example of quaternary proteins
Insulin
Haemoglobin
Collagen
30
Tertiary and quaternary are protein …
3D structured
31
Enzyme protein structure
Spherical due to tight folding
Soluble
- roles in metabolism
- hydrolyse and synthesise
32
Antibody protein structure
- immune responce
- two short light polypeptide chains and to long heavy chains bonded together
- variable region cause by amino acid sequence
33
Transport protein structure
- hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids causing folds and channel
- transport molecules and ions across ions
- in plasma membrane
34
Structural protein structure
- physically strong
- long chains parallel with cross links
Keratin (hair nails) and collagen (connective tissue)
35
Things needed biruet test
Alkaline sodium hydroxide solution first
Then copper (II) sulfate solution
Purple positive
36
What does intracellular and extracellular mean
Enzymes can be both
I - in cells
e - outside
37
Activation energy
Usually heat so lower AE lower temp of reaction
38
Enzymes bond and break
When bond = reduce repulsion of two substrates
When break= put pressure on bonds needing to break
39
Enzymes highly specific
Due to tertiary structure and induced fit theory
40
What affects enzyme structure
Temp
Ph
E conc
S conc - until saturated
Mutation
41
Where do non competitive inhibitors bind
Allosteric binding sites
42
Tangent fro initial rate of reaction
- before curve between curve and x axis in bertween
43
DNA and rna
Nucleic acids
- deoxyribonucleic acid
- ribonucleic acid - transference genetic information from dna to ribosome (uracil), single polynucleotide, shorter
Nucleotide = pentose susgar, nitrogen containing base, phosphate
44
Bases and info
Adenine
Thymine (uracil in rna)
Cytosine
Guanine
45
DNA
Antiparallel - strands run in opposite directions
One end is 3’ (3prime)
One end is 5’ (5prime)
46
Who determined structure of dna and semi conservative replication
Watson and crick
47
When validated semi conservative dna replication
Meselson and stahl
Used light 14 (high) and heavy 15 (low) nitrogen isotopes
- in bacteria
- used centrifuge
-
48
Water structure
- covalent - shared negative H electrons
- oxygen negative due to unshared slightly negative electrons
- polar = partially negative (o) and partially positive (h)
- hydrogen bonding
49
Water properties
Metabolite - condensation and hydrolysis
Solvent - dissolve minerals
HIGH LHOV - lot of energy to break bonds, lot of energy used up when vapourises - lose water to cool down organisms
Buffer - resist temp change - HSHC - stable temp maintained
Solvent - due to polarity and totally surround molucle to dissolve
Cohesion - attraction, very cohesive, high surface tension in contact with air
50
ATP
Adenosine triosphosphate
- nucleotide derivative (modified nucleotide)
- energy stored in high energy bonds between phosphate groups
- released by hydrolysis and releases one inorganic phosphate
- enzyme atp hydrolase
51
What happens to inorganic phosphate
Added to another molecule by phosphorylation and making it more reactive
52
Inorganic ion prosperities
ELECTRIC CHARGE + NO CARBON
Positive = CATion
Negative - anion
Determined by conc
53
Inorganic ions
Hydrogen - pH
Iron - haemoglobin Fe2+ and Fe3+ when oxygen released
Sodium - co-transport of glucose and action potentials
Potassium - action potentials
Phosphate - dna, rna, atp
Chlorine - synaptic transmission
54
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
NE - double membrane surrounding n
NO - makes ribosomes
55
What do cellulose cells walls have
Plasmodesmata (channels for exchanging substances with adjacent cells) pores
56
Fungal cells wall
Chitin
57
Folds in mitochondria
Cristae - double membrane
58
Golgi app
Fluid filled membrane bound sacs
- process and package lipids and proteins
- make lysosomes
59
Golgi vesicle
- small fluid filled sac
- STORES lipids and proteins and transports to cell surface membrane
60
RER
Fold process proteins
From ribosome
61
SER
Synthesise and process lipids
62
Polymer making bacteria cell wall
Glycoprotein Murein
63
HIV SIZE
0.1 um
- no ribosomes
- no cytoplasm
- no plasma membrane
64
Resolution =
Detail
Ability to distinguish between two points
65
Optical vs electron
Light vs electrons
Light = 0.2 um res and x1500 mag
E = 0.0002 um - higher resolution more detail X 1,500,000 mag
66
Scanning vs transmission
T = electromagnetic focusing beam of electrons through specimen
Denser part darker as absorb more electrons
High res so see internal organelle structure but THIN specimine
S = electron beam know electrons off specimen which gather in CATHODE RAY TUBE forming image
3D
Thick specs
Lower resolution
67
How to separate cell components
Homogenisation - break in ice-cold, isotonic, buffer
Filtration - remove debris
Ultracentrifugation - separate to get supernatent and pellet
68
G1
New organelles
Proteins made
69
S
DNA replication
70
G2
Cell keeps growing and more proteins for division
71
Interphase
G1, s, g2
Unravelled and replicate dna
More atp
72
Mitosis
P - condense, NE breaks, centrioles move, spindles form,
M - line up, spindle join to centromere
A - centromeres divide, sis chroms separate, spindles contract.
T - uncoiled chromatids, NE forms, cytokinesis
73
Chemical drugs in chemotherapy
Prevent synthesis of enzymes in dna replication - prevents s phase
74
Radiation and some drugs
- damage dna
Cell kills itself
75
Mitotic index
No. Of cells with visible chromosomes / total no. Of cells
76
Calculate size of cells
Eye piece graticuel and stage micrometer
- line them up
- must calibrate
1 division = 0.1mm
77
Cell surface membrane is
Partially permeable
Diffusion osmosis active t
Fluid mosaic
Cholesterol - lipid between phospholipids, restricts movement, more rigid, less fluid, maintains shape
Glycoprotein
Glycolipid
Phospholipids bilayer
Intrinsic protein
Extrinsic protein
78
How to use colpurimeter
Calibrate for 5 mins to return to zero
Measurement through clear water to test
79
Permeability of membrane
Affected by temp and denaturing of proteins and deformation but too low form ice crystals
80
Diffusion
Passive
81
Fasilitated diffusion
Carrier p - large mol attaches, protein changes shape, releases mol on other side
Channel p - pores in membrane for charged particles to diffuse through
82
Rate of diffusion
SA
Diffusion pathway
CG
83
Fas diff depends of
No. Of proteins
CG
84
What if two solutions have the same water potential
Isotonic
85
5 serial dilutions
10cm3 of 2M sucrose to 1st tube
5cm3 of diluted water to other 4
5cm3 of 1st and add to 2nd and mix = 10cm3
Repeat with last 3 to get 0.5M, 0.25M, 0.125M
86
Other way of making serial dilution
Using scale factors
- know conc
- SF = conc now / conc wanted
87
Co-t
- carrier p
- bind two mols at once
- na and glucose
- na down cg
- glucose against cg
- sodium potassium pump creates cg
88
Factors affecting at
Speed of individual carrier protein
No. Of carrier proteins
Rate or resp
89
Where glucose absorbed
Ileum into blood stream
Conc of glucose in small intestine too low for glucose to passively diffuse
90
ELIZA
Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay
- test antibody antigen compatibility
Direct = single antib
Indirect = two
1.
91
HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus - aids = acquired immunodefincy virus syndrome
- causes immune system deterioration and failure
- hiv infects t helper cells and use them as hosts
CAPSID - core genetic material (RNA)
Reverse transcriptase
- after flu symptoms and hiv replication there is a latency period of none leading tp aids
NO CURE
92
Antigenic variation
Helps some pathogens evade the immune system
- can change antigens so that memory cells no longer detect them and trigger an immune responce before systems or spread of virus in body killlign cells
E.g. flu
93
94
How do antibiotics work
Interfere with bacterial enzymes,es and ribosomes
- only virus specific enzymes impact viruses
95
Trachea and spiraclesand tracheols in insects
Air filled pipes
Pores
Down concentration gradient
Tracheols = thin permeable walls
DOESNT TRASPROT CO2
RHYTHMIC AB MOVEMENTS
96
Plant gas exchange in d..? Plants
DICTYLEDONOUS - gas exchange of surface of mesophyll cells
Large SA
Stomata = pores in epidermis
97
X…? Plant adaptations
XEROPHYTIC
- sunken stomatas
Curdled leaves
Hairs
Wax
Reduced number of stomata
98
Why does inspiration require energy
Active process - muscle contraction
99
Relaxed diaphragm
Curved
100
During forced expiration, ex and in ICM moving either to relax or contract - what is this called
Antagonistic (opposing)
101
Outside alveoli layer
Alveolar epithelium
STEEP CONC. GRAD.
102
103
What is maintained in ventilation
Flow of blood
Ventilation
104
Tidal volume
Volume of air breathed in per breath
105
Ventilation rate
Amount of breaths per minute
106
Forced expiration rate
Vol. of air out in each breath
107
Forced vital capacity
- amount forcefully breathed out after deep breath in
108
Disease
Tb - bacteria kills tissue - reduced TV increased VR
Fb - scar tissue - reduced TV and FVC increased VR
As - inflammation, mucus - reduced FEV1
EmP - inflammation, attracts phagocytes, reduced elastin and recoil - increases VR
109
Where are gills
Under flap called operculum
110
What are the carbs, fats and proteins broken down into
C = di then monosaccharides
F = fatty acids and monoglycerides
P = amino acids
111
What breaks down carbs
Amylase
Membrane - bound disaccharides
112
Amylase
Starch in maltose
Produced in salivary glands and pancreas
Released into mouth and small intestine
113
Membrane bound disaccharidases
Maltase
Sucrase
Lactase
Attached to cell membrane of epithelial cells lining ileum
114
Ileum
Final part of small intestine
115
Bile
Bile salts
Produced in liver
Emulsify lipids into smaller droplets
Bigger SA for lipase
FA and MG stick to BS to form micelles
116
Protein digestive enzymes
Exopeptidase - bonds at END of chain
Endopeptidase - bonds IN chain
Protease/peptidase
Dipeptidase
117
Endopeptidase
Break peptide bonds in centre of protein AA chain sequence
Trypsin and chymotrypsin are examples 0f the enzyme type
Pepsin released into mouth stomach by cells in stomach lignin (acidic conditions)
118
Exopeptidase
Hydrolyse bonds at ends of protein mols
- remove single AAs
- dipeptidase
Cell surface membrane of epithelial cells
119
Glucose and galactose absorption
Active t with cotraporter and co-t proteins
120
Fructose abs
Facilitated diffusion with differnt transporter protein
121
Mono-g and fa abs
Micelles release mono-g and fa near epithelium
Lipid sol so diffuse directly across ep mem
122
AA abs
Cotransport
Siodum ions
Sodium dependent transporter protein
123
How many 02 can hb carry
4
And forms OXYhaemo-g
Affinity
Dissicaition
Partial pressure
Reversible reaction
Load unload
Saturation
124
Dissociation curve
S shape
- HB shape changes when binds to first o2 so easier for others to join as well
- more saturated = hard to join more (curve steepens)
- shallow at each end = harder
- steep = small change in po2 but BIG change in amount of O carried by hb
125
What happens at high CO2 to hb
- give up more o2 more readily/easier
- way of getting more o2 to cells during high activity
- respiration raises pco2
-
126
127
Rate of oxygen unloading
Rate at which oxyHB dissociated to for HB and O
Shifts right
Low saturation
BOHR
128
What does blood transport
Metabolic waste
Respiratory gases
Hormones
129
Arteries + inner lining name
From heart
To body
Thick muscular
Stretch recoil
Maintaine high pressure
Inner lining = endothelium (its folded allowing stretch)
All carry oxygen blood
Except pul arts
130
Veins
To heart
Low pressure Inner
Wide lumen
Little elastic or muscle
Valves
Body muscles help contraction
All deoxy blood
Except pul veins
131
Arteroles
Arteries divided into smaller vessels
Direct blood to high demand areas
Muscles
Contract = restrict blood flow
Relax = allow
132
Where tissue fluid formed
Capillary BED
Substances more out of caps
INTO tissue fluid
133
What causes formation of tissue fluid
Pressure filtration
134
Where does TF start
Arterial end
HHSP in cap than tf
135
Venal end
Lower WP to osmosis so water reenters
To increase OP
136
Where does excess TF go
Lymphatic drainage
137
What causes HHSP in caps
High BP
138
Two types of VC
Superior - higher
Inferior - lower
139
Valves
Have valve tendons called cords
140
Cardiac cycle
AS - AC,VR,AV-O,SL-C - PRESSURE INCREASE IN V
VS - VC,AR,AV-C,SL-O - INCREASED PRESSURE IN V THAN A AND THAN AO AND PA
D - VR,AR, AV-O,SL-C - INCREASED PRESSURE IN PA AND AO - LEADS TO INCREASE OF PRESSURE IN A BACK TO BEGINING
141
Cause of CVD
Atheroma increase risk of A/T heart disease
- damage to endothelium
- high bp
- wbc and lipids clump together
Restricts blood flow
142
Myocardial infarction
HEART ATTACK
Aneurysm - balloon swelling, weakens arteries, lowers bp
Thrombosis - blood clot, rupture,
143
THREE REASONS FOR MCI
Smoking
High fat and cholesterol
High bp
Genetic predisposition
144
Cause of blood clot
Accumulation of platelets and fibrin proteins and debris
145
Xylem
No ends so uninterrupted tube
146
147
XYLEM CT
COHESION TENSION
148
Solutes name
Assimilates
149
Important to talk about in MFH
Changes in pressure caused by diffusion and osmosis
150
Autoradiography
Showing how radioactivity has spread
Radioactive traser path
151
Point of radioactive tracer
Track translocation of solutes
152
Function of his tones
Support dna
Tight coil
153
DNA in mit and chloro
Same a prok
- circular, short and NO HISTONES
154
How does prok dna compact without histones
Supercoiling
155
What does gene code for
Polypeptide pr FUCTIONAL RNA
156
Repeats in dna
Non coding repeats so dont code fro AAs
157
mRNA structure features about stand
Polynucleotide stand
158
Features of tRNA
AA binding site
Anti codon
Clover
H bonds
159
Enzyme order in transcritpion
RNA POLYMERASE (attached to dna)
With dna helicase attached
160
DNA helicase function
Uncoil
161
Translation main points
- atp
- anticodon
- each tRNA moves away
- stop signal
162
Genetic code
Non overlapping
Universal
Degenerate
163
Fertilisation
Zygote
164
Body cells chromosomes
Diploid
(2n)
One mum
One dad
165
Gamete chromos
Haploid (n)
One each
166
Genetic variation
Random fertilisation
Different combos
Crossing over
Independent segregation
167
DNA at start of meiosis
Unravels and replicated
168
Why no crossing over or INDI SEG in mitosis
No pairing or separating of homologous pairs chromosomes
169
Mutagenic agents
Ultra v radiation
Chemicals
Viruses
Ionising radiation
170
What reduces genetic diversity
Genetic bottlenecking - big pop reduction
(Founder effect)
Reduce allele frequency and gene pool diversity
171
How are new alleles formed and why harmful
Random mutation
Mutated allele quickly dies out
172
Adaptations
Behavioural - acts
Physicolocal - body response to increase survival like hibernation and lowered metabolism
Anatomical - structure like fur or blubber
173
Directional sel
Alleles fro extreme type more likely to survive and REPRODUCE
-
174
Stabilising sel
Middle range
Stable enviro
175
Aseptic techs
Flame equipment
Disinfectant
Agar container lid open for short periods of time
Tape shut
Reduce airflow in rooom
Flame bottle of broth
176
Evolutionary history
Phylogeny
177
Taxonomy
Classification
DKPCOFGS
Taxa
178
Naming system
Nomenclature
Binomial
179
Coutrship
Species specific
Prevent interbreeding
180
Genome sequencing
Entire base sequence of organisms dna can be determined and compared
Closely related speceis have higher percentage of similarities in dna base order
181
Comparing AA sequence
We AAs needed to form base sequence
More similar AA seq more closely related
182
Immunological comparisons
Similar proteins same antibodies
183
Bio-d
Variety of org in an area
184
Habitat
Place where organisms live
185
Community
All pop of diff specs in one place at one time
186
Index of diversity
Abundance
Biodiversity
Sum of !!!!!
187
Agricultural practises
Woodland clearance
Hedgerow removal
Pesticides
Herbicides
Monocultures
