North Africa and the Middle East - 1947-196 Flashcards
What was Britain’s relationship and involvement with Egypt and Sudan post-WW2? Why was Egypt still effectively under British control?
-In the inter-war years, Egypt had already been granted formal independence from Britain in 1922 following the British ‘Milner Report’ - no longer a ‘veiled protectorate (Egypt was never a colony!).
-However, because Britain refused to recognise full Egyptian sovereignty over Sudan (ruled under an Anglo-Egyptian condominium agreed in 1899 - i.e both Britain and Egypt agreed to shared sovereignty of Sudan), Egypt continued to be a British client state (so still somewhat subordinate) until 1954 - see ahead.
-British troops remained in Egypt until the Anglo-Egyptian treaty 1936, whereby it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from Egypt, but continue to occupy the Suez Canal Zone.
Why was the Middle East such an important British spehere of influence after WW1 and WW2? Why was the Suez Canal still so important to Britain? How did Britain exert their claim to dominance in this area?
The Middle East was an important British sphere of influence - Iraq and Palestine had been seized from Ottoman Turkey as mandates after WW1.
-Even following the post-WW2 British withdrawal from Palestine in 1948, and after the loss of Iraq to King Faisal I in 1932, Britain still had control over Aden (South Yemen) and its oil installations, Cyprus and air-force bases in Iraq. Britain also financed and provided offices for the Jordanian Army which further gave the illusion of a strong presence in the region.
-The loss of Egypt, the leading Arab nation, in 1922 was not the end of British influence in the country, or in the Suez Canal Zone.
Suez Canal:
-Britain still had 10,000 troops in the Suez Canal Zone (as per the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty).
-The Suez Canal, finished in 1869, had been the quick route to India and was thus a central focal point for investment, as well as a factor for wider British investment into Egypt as a whole (high quality Egyptian cotton attracted British textile manufacturers).
-The Canal itself was not under the ownership of any public authority or state - it was privately owned by the Suez Canal Company, which itself was owned by private shareholders (most of whom were French) and the British government - a joint British-French enterprise.
Why was Britain concerned about the maintenance of its influence in the Middle East by 1947? How did Britain try to cover for itself using Arab nationalists?
By 1947, Britain were fearful of communist Russia’s ambitions in the Middle East.
-Britain tried to negotiate with the Arab league, a nationalist organisation of North African and Middle Eastern Arab countries, to persuade them to resist communist infiltration.
-But, the British found that the Arabs were not prepared to support Britain as long as they maintained their Suez garrisons (troops) and control in Sudan (where its presence was seen as an offense to Egypt).
-Overall, Arab nationalists were less and less keen on securing Britain’s interests, and more sympathetic to the USSR.
Who was the King of Egypt post-WW2? What did he do in 1951?
King Farouk of Egypt - had inherited the throne in 1936.
Post-WW2:
1951 - Farouk independently renounced the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty, which had seen 10,000 British troops allowed to stay in the Suez Canal Zone.
-Farouk also declared himself as King of Sudan.
When was King Farouk overthrown? Who led this military coup? What were their reasons?
January 1952 - Farouk overthrown by a military coup.
-The coup was orchestrated by a group of army officers led by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser.
-His extravagant playboy lifestyle unravelled as he gained a reputation for corruption and economic incompetence.
-The military blamed Farouk for Egypt’s poor performance in the 1948 war with Israel.
-Farouk was also blamed for allowing British troops to gain such influence in the Canal Zone.
-Farouk luxuriously lived the rest of his life in exile in Italy.
Who was Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser? What had he led in 1952? What were his beliefs on British influence in Egypt?
Colonel Nasser was an Egyptian military officer.
-Nasser had organised and led the military coup in Egypt in 1952, which brought down King Farouk and led to Egypt being declared as a Republic in 1953.
Beliefs:
-Nasser was a ferocious opponent of Western imperialism.
-He wanted to get rid of foreign influence in Egypt and was determined to establish Egypt as the leading power in the Middle East.
What was Britain’s reaction to the military coup in 1952? Who was the Foreign Secretary at this time? What 2 agreements were made in 1953 and 1954? What was the significance of each agreement? What was Britain’s concession in 1954 a sign of?
Britain immediately sought to negotiate with Egypt’s new rulers - President Mohamed Naguib.
-This negotiation was led by Anthony Eden, the Foreign Secretary in Churchill’s 2nd administration (1951-55).
Agreements:
-1953 - with Egypt now a Republic, an agreement was made on stages towards Sudanese independence - Naguib still president. Sudan granted independence in January 1956 as the Anglo-Egyptian condominium was terminated.
-1954 - in exchange for certain rights to the Suez Canal, Britain agreed on a phased withdrawal of British troops from the Suez Canal Zone over the next 20 months.
-In return, the Egyptians promised the British free access to the Suez Canal, the maintenance of former British bases, and that they would respect the independence of the Suez Canal Company.
-This British concession of a phased withdrawal, not only reflected Britain’s desire to improve Anglo-Arab relations, but also highlighted British financial difficulties - the British couldn’t afford to fortify their Suez garrisons to resist the constant nationalist guerrilla attacks.
-Marked the end of Egypt as a British client state.
How and when did Colonel Nasser take the reins of power in Egypt? What was the significance of Nasser’s leadership in terms of the 1954 agreement?
November 1954 - Nasser took the reins as chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council from November 1954, replacing President Mohamed Naguib.
-Naguib had been placed under house arrest after a 1954 attempt on Nasser’s life by a Muslim Brotherhood member - Nasser had to be careful.
Significance of Nasser’s leadership:
-Nasser had helped in 1954 to negotiate the phased withdrawal of British troops from the Suez Canal Zone.
-Nasser now saw himself as the leader of the Arab world.
How did the 1954 settlement between Egypt and Britain affect diplomatic relations? What pact did Britain engineer to try to secure its interests in the Middle East? Why did Nasser refuse to sign this agreement?
Led to a constructive period of British diplomacy.
-1955 - The Baghdad Pact was a defensive organisation promoting shared political, military and economic goals between Turkey, Pakistan, Iraq, Britain and Iran - engineered by Britain to repel any Soviet threat to the Middle East.
Nasser’s refusal:
-Nasser refused to sign this agreement, fearing that it would threaten Egyptian dominance - he didn’t want foreign influence on Egypt.
-Instead, in September 1955, Nasser turned to communist Czechoslovakia, signing an $83 million arms deal.
Why was Britain alarmed by Nasser’s actions in 1955? Who was now Prime Minister?
Anthony Eden, now Prime Minister since April 1955, was alarmed by Nasser’s refusal to sign the Baghdad pact, and with his closeness to ambitious communist rivals.
-Eden was determined to maintain British influence in the Middle East and saw Nasser as a threat to this influence.
When did Nasser formally become President of Egypt? What were his aims for Egypt? What project was at the centre of his modernisation plans?
June 1956 - Nasser formally elected as Egypt’s 2nd president.
Aims:
-Nasser was determined to establish Egypt as a leading power in the Middle East.
-His plans for a new Egypt centred on the construction of the Aswan High Dam - an upgrade on the Aswan Dam built in 1902.
-He hoped to make this dam the core of a programme of irrigation, flood control and electrification (generating electricity).
Who had previously promised financial aid to fund Nasser’s Aswan High Dam? Why did the US and Britain withdraw funding in 1956?
In 1955, Nasser had obtained promises of financial aid from both Russia and the West - he was well aware of the Cold War context and was trying to play the West.
-But, in July 1956 (one month after Nasser’s presidency) the US, Britain and the World Bank announced that they were withdrawing their funding because of Nasser’s continued association with communist powers, including China.
-E.g Nasser’s arms deal with Czechoslovakia in 1955, now heard about Nasser’s funding considerations.
How did Nasser respond to the withdrawal of funding from his Aswan High Dam? What crisis did this trigger?
16 July 1956 - Nasser announced the nationalisation of the Suez Canal Company - a retaliation to the withdrawal of funding.
-Well within his rights to do so - Suez was a private company so all that was required was to pay out the shareholders at a fair price.
-A direct blow to the British government which held 44% of the company shares.
-Triggered an international crisis - the Suez crisis.
How did Britain and Eden react to Nasser’s announcement? What might have clouded Eden’s judgement? Why were France equally outraged with Nasser?
Eden saw Nasser’s announcement as an indirect attack on the British position in the Middle East.
-Diplomatic attempts to convince Nasser to reverse the move were unsuccessful.
-Eden convinced himself that Nasser was a dictator who needed to be stopped in order to secure British interests in the Middle East - less about overthrowing Nasser and more about making a statement and securing Britain’s wider interests.
-Removing Nasser from power was the only way to restore their status as a major world power.
-Eden was also determined to not repeat the mistake of the appeasers of the 1930’s - i.e fears of making the errors that Chamberlain made with Hitler and the Nazis clouded his perception of Nasser.
France:
-France were equally outraged by the nationalisation.
-French President, René Coty, agreed with Eden’s assessment on securing British and French interests.
-France opposed Nasser’s assistance to the FLN (National Liberation Front in Algeria), who they were fighting a war against. Nasser, who opposed Western imperialism, provided training to the FLN soldiers.
What secret plan did Britain and France agree? Who did they agree it with? Why were Israel keen to play a role in the plan?
Protocol of Sèvres:
-22-24 October 1956 - a secret agreement reached between Britain, France and Israel.
-Israel would invade Egypt on 29 October.
-This would allow Britain and France, on the following day (30 October) to issue a joint ultimatum to Egypt and Israel (both sides) demanding an immediate ceasefire and withdrawal of troops from the vicinity of the Canal within 12 hours.
-Israel would intentionally refuse to give Britain and France the excuse to invade Egypt on 31 October and occupy the Canal Zone on the grounds of ‘defending it’ or ‘restoring order’.
-Britain and France would then be able to topple the Egyptian President Nasser.
Israel:
-Formed in 1948, Israel had already fought a war against Egypt over border disputes.
-They disliked Nasser’s hard-line attitude towards the state of Israel - Nasser considered Israel a bridge-head of Western imperialism and supported Palestinian raids on Israel’s western border.
-Israel also saw the invasion as a chance to gain control of the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula, as well as to end the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran.
