NS prelim 1 Flashcards
1
Q
how does the human body store energy?
A
chemical energy extracted from food
2
Q
simple form of CHO
A
Glucose
3
Q
stored form of CHO
A
glycogen
4
Q
primary store sight of CHO
A
muscle > liver
5
Q
simple forms of lipids and fats
A
free fatty acids
6
Q
stored forms of lipids and fats
A
triglycerides
7
Q
primary store site of lipids and fats
A
adipose tissue > muscle > serum
8
Q
simple forms of proteins
A
amino acids
9
Q
stored forms of proteins
A
not really
10
Q
primary store site of proteins
A
muscle
11
Q
exception about protein energy storage
A
amino acids cannot be stored for later use. however, under very extreme metabolic conditions such as prolonged starvation, muscle will be broken down and its main constituent amino acids will be used to produce energy
12
Q
energy intake balance components
A
CHO, proteins, lipids and fats, alcohol
13
Q
3 examples of energy expenditure in the body
A
basal metabolism, thermogenesis, physical activity
14
Q
basal (resting) metabolic rate
A
energy needed to perform normal body functions
15
Q
thermogenesis
A
the energy cost of food processing
16
Q
examples of processes for basal metabolic rate
A
respiration, circulation, digestion
17
Q
examples of processes for thermogenesis
A
ingestion, digestion, absorption, transport, and storage. including peristalsis and segmentation.
18
Q
physical activity energy expenditure
A
body movement determining activity-induced
19
Q
how to measure energy in units
A
expressed in a 1000-calorie metric unit known as kcal
20
Q
1 kcal to joules
A
4184 joules
21
Q
1 kcal to cal
A
1000 cal
22
Q
1 kcal to dietary cal
A
1 dietary cal
23
Q
scientific terms for calories
A
1 calorie is the unit of E required to increase the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 degree Celsius
24
Q
methods of measuring energy
A
assessing O2 consumption, CO2 production, and heat released from metabolized nutrients
25
how to calculate energy theoretically
calories can be calculated by burning food and measuring the heat produced
26
calorimetry
the change in E of a system by measuring heat exchange
27
calorimeter
an instrument to measure the transfer of heat
28
bomb calorimeter
used to determine the E content of nutrients
29
bomb calorimeter energy value for carbohydrates
4.3 kcal
30
bomb calorimeter energy value for lipids
9.45 kcal
31
bomb calorimeter energy value for protein
5.65 kcal
32
bomb calorimeter energy value for alcohol
7.0 kcal
33
energy digestion value for carbohydrates
4 kcal
34
energy digestion value for lipids
9 kcal
35
energy digestion value for protein
4 kcal
36
energy digestion value for alcohol
7 kcal
37
calorimetry rooms
are big enough to contain a person and can be used as a direct form to measure the body's heat production. this is not a very practical or accurate method, especially while exercising.
38
indirect calorimetry
measures respiratory gas exchange
39
example of direct calorimetry
calorimetry rooms
40
VO2
volume of O2 consumed per min.
41
VO2 equation
volume of O2 inhaled minus volume of O2 exhaled
42
VCO2
volume of CO2 produced per minute
43
VCO2 equation
volume of CO2 exhaled minus Volume of O2 inhaled
44
how to estimate energy expenditure using indirect calorimetry
the ratio of O2 consumed compared to CO2 produced can be used
45
Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER)
measurement of how many CHO or fats we are using for energy
46
RER equation
RER = VCO2 / VO2 = CO2 made / O2 used
47
oxidation of palmitic acid in RER
0.71 (only fats)
48
oxidation of glucose in RER
1.00 (only carbs)
49
Cellular currency
ATP
50
Catabolism
the process of when the body needs energy, it breaks down compounds
51
3 basic units of ATP
a sugar called ribose, a base called adenine, and 3 phosphate groups
52
where is the energy in ATP stored
in chemical bonds between the phosphate groups
53
3 energy compounds that are
constantly interconverted
AMP, ADP, ATP
54
hydrolysis
ATP breakdown
55
how much energy is released from hydrolysis
7.3 cal/mol
56
how is energy released with ATP?
when a high-energy phosphate bond in ATP is broken. The loss of 1 phosphate from ATP results in the formation of ADP
57
product of hydrolysis
ADP + inorganic P or AMP + 2P
58
substrate phosphorylation
the addition of a phosphate group directly to ADP
59
where does the ATP energy come from
the breakdown of energy-yielding nutrients
60
anabolic reactions
chemical reactions that require energy
61
energy for anabolic reactions
the body uses ATP to transfer energy from catabolic reactions to power anabolic reactions
62
how to make a nonspontaneous reaction into a spontaneous one
the E released from hydrolyzing ATP is transferred to make unfavorable reactions favorable
63
metabolic pathways
catabolic reactions are coupled with anabolic reactions in a complex scheme to be able to do work
64
3 examples of metabolic pathways in the body
moving muscles, synthesizing compounds, or transporting nutrients
65
Substrate Product Metabolic Pathway
66
what types of energy do cells interconvert with high efficiency
chemical, electrochemical, mechanical, and osmotic energy
67
electron transport chain (ETC)
catabolism of the three energy-yielding nutrients starts down a different path, but they have the same destination of the ETC
68
glycolytic energy system substrate
carbohydrates (glucose and glycogen)
69
glycolysis
the breakdown of carbohydrates to resynthesize ATP. involves a series of 10 reactions that occur in the cytoplasm of cells (sarcoplasm of muscle cells)
70
how does glycolysis produce ATP
energy pathway uses glucose from the blood and liver or glycogen stored in the liver and muscles
71
glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen from liver or muscle into glucose within the blood or liver to synthesize ATP
72
glycogenesis and location
when glucose from the blood or liver is made into the glycogen polymer in the liver or muscle
73
pyruvate
end product of glycolysis which may proceed in one of two directions
74
lactic acid
one pathway for pyruvate through the Cori cycle
75
Acetyl CoA
one pathway for pyruvate through the TCA cycle
76
anaerobic glycolysis alternative terms
anaerobic respiration, fast glycolysis, lactic acid fermentation
77
anaerobic glycolysis
takes place when the body needs energy quickly such as intense exercise. ATP resynthesis occurs at a faster rate but is limited in duration.
78
aerobic glycolysis alternative terms
aerobic respiration or slow glycolysis
79
aerobic glycolysis
takes place in the mitochondria. when pyruvate is shuttled into the mitochondria the ATP resynthesis rate is slower, but it can occur for a longer period.
80
glycolysis general process summarized
intake of complex carbs to pyruvate to oxygen determining processes
81
macronutrient fact: Acetyl CoA
the METABOLISM of all energy-yielding nutrients starts at different points but all arrive at acetyl CoA
82
two directions Acetyl CoA can proceed
oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP or lipogenesis for the synthesis of fats
83
oxidative phosphorylation substrate
CHO and or fat (acetyl CoA)
84
lipogenesis
formation of a triglyceride from fatty acid and glycerol
85
the oxidative aerobic system definition (traits)
occurs when O2 supply is sufficient. the primary source of ATP at rest and during steady state exercise lasting > 3 minutes.
86
the oxidative (aerobic) system primarily uses which substrates
carbs and fats
87
where do oxidative phosphorylation reactions take place
the inner compartment of the mitochondria
88
specific processes associated with oxidative phosphorylation
TCA cycle and the electron transport chain
89
Inner compartment of the mitochondria
contains the matrix, site of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, fatty acid oxidation, and the TCA cycle
90
inner membrane of the mitochondria
site of the electron transport chain reaciton
91
two subsystems of the oxidative system
aerobic glycolysis and aerobic lipolysis
92
aerobic glycolysis components
CHO--glucose--pyruvate--acetyl CoA
93
aerobic lipolysis components
Fatty acid--Acetyl CoA
94
three steps of aerobic glycolysis for oxidation of CHO
glycolysis (glucose to pyruvate), tricarboxylic acid or TCA cycle (citric acid cycle), and Electron Transport Chain (etc)
95
where goes the oxidation of CHO occur
glycolysis occurs in the cytosol while the TCA cycle and ETC occur in the mitochondria
96
significance of TCA
major pathway for the oxidation of pyruvate, fatty acids, and amino acids which are used to make acetyl CoA
97
how is energy supplied to the oxidative hosphorylation system
This cycle produces high energy electron carriers. NADH and FADH2 are coenzymes which supply electrons to the system.
98
complexes CI-CIV
a series of electron carriers mounted in the mitochondrial intermembrane space, complexes 1 through 4
99
complex CV
a large protein complex called F1F0 ATP synthase
100
oxidative phosphorylation complexes
CI - CV
101
electron transport chain complexes
CI - CIV
102
electron movement among the complexes
Each ETC carrier recieves the electrons and pass them onto the next carrier (C1 - CV). Coenzymes deliver electrons from the TCA cycle, glycolysis, and fatty acid oxidation to the ETC.
103
Oxygen movement among the complexes
oxygen accepts the electrons and combines with hydrogen to form H2O. specifically in CV.
104
hydrogen ion movement among the complexes
as electrons passed from carrier to carrier, hydrogen ions are pumped across the membrane to the outer compartment of the mitochondrion
105
importance of Hydrogen ions with the complexes
the energy from the Hydrogen ion concentration gradient is used to power the synthesis of ATP
106
NET ATP production
36 to 38
107
SLOW GLYCOLYSIS: substrate level phosphorylation ATP production
4 total
108
SLOW GLYCOLYSIS: oxidative phosphorylation ATP production + organization
6 total. 2 NADH with 3 ATP each.
109
KREBBS CYCLE: substrate level phosphorylation ATP production
2 total
110
KREBBS CYCLE: oxidative phosphorylation ATP production + organization
24 total. 8 NADH with 3 ATP each.
111
KREBBS CYCLE: Via GTP ATP production + organization
4 total. 2 FADH2 with 2 ATP each.
112
how much ATP is consumed for glycolysis
2 ATP
113
triglycerides def + location
fat storage inside muscle fibers and in adipocytes within adipose tissue
114
stored TG are broken down into
1 glycerol molecule and 3 individual fatty acids
115
lipogenesis
fusing glycerol with 3 fatty acids
116
lipolysis
unfusing glycerol from 3 fatty acids
117
aerobic lipolysis concept + why do we go through it?
oxidation of fat. before fatty acids can be used for energy they must be converted to acetyl CoA. since fatty acids are very large, they produce more energy (ATP)
118
aerobic lipolysis: activation
to cross the outer mitochondrial membrane, a fatty acid must first be activated in the cytosol by coenzyme A. this results in the formation of fatty acyl CoA. Fatty acyl CoA crosses the outer mitochondrial membrane and enters the intermembrane space.
119
aerobic lipolysis: transport into the mitochondria matrix
an Acetyl CoA is formed after a carnitine reacts with the fatty acid CoA, where its product of acyl carnitine crosses the inner membrane. carnitine goes back to continue transporting more.
120
beta oxidation of fatty acids
beta oxidation is an aerobic metabolic process that consists of a series of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions that cleave off 2-carbon subunits from a fatty acid
121
aerobic lipolysis: oxidation
the process of beta oxidation involves enzymes that cleave off 2 carbon units from the fatty acid chain, forming acetyl CoA. this process repeats itself until the entire fatty acid has been broken down. each cleavage generates 1 NADH + H and FADH2.
122
Aerobic Lipolysis overall ATP production from an 18 carbon fatty acid
108 total. 108 from citric acid cycle and 40 from beta oxidation.
123
(18 carbon fatty acid) beta oxidation by oxidative phosphorylation of 8 FADH2 total ATP yield
16 total
124
(18 carbon fatty acid) beta oxidation by oxidative phosphorylation of 8 NADH + H total ATP yield
24 total
125
(18 carbon fatty acid) by substrate phosphorylation via 9 GTP
9 total
126
(18 carbon fatty acid) by oxidative phosphorylation of 27 NADH + H
81 total
127
(18 carbon fatty acid) by oxidative phosphorylation of 9 FADH2
18 total
128
simple sugars
monosaccharides and disaccharides
129
complex carbohydrates
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
129
monosaccharides
single unit sugars that differ in their arrangement of atoms
130
types of monosaccharides
glucose, fructose, galactose
130
glucose importance
blood sugar which serves as an essential energy source for all bodily functions and physical activity
131
glucose uptake
fructose and galactose change into glucose through the liver
132
disaccharides
pairs of monosaccharides. they are put together by condensation reactions and taken apart through hydrolysis
132
examples of disaccharides
maltose, sucrose, lactose
133
oligosaccharides
made of 3 to 10 monosaccharides. humans lack the enzymes to digest some dietary oligosaccharides, so they pass undigested into the large intestines where gut bacteria break them down.
134
polysaccharides
chains of monosaccharides made almost exclusively by glucose
135
types of polysaccharides
glycogen, amylopectin and amylose (starches)
136
amount of CHO for veggies + examples
5g per serving. glucose, fructose, and sucrose.
137
amount of CHO for milk + examples
12g per serving. glucose, galactose, lactose.
138
amount of CHO for sweets + examples
high in added sugars. glucose, sucrose, HFCS
138
amount of CHO for fruits + examples
15g per serving. glucose, fructose, and sucrose
139
foods that are not a source for CHO
fats and animal source foods
140
amount of CHO for starches + examples
15g per serving. breads, pasta, etc.
141
Food sources for CHO
includes sugars, starches, and fibers. can be found in all plant foods and in milk.
142
galactose def
found mostly in milk as part of lactose
143
glucose def
consumed as a component of disaccharides and polysaccharides such as dextrose
143
fructose def
occurs naturally in fruits and honey. HFCS comes from soft drinks, ready to eat cereals, and sweetened desserts.
144
sucrose def
found naturally in fruits, vegetables, and grains. its refined and converted into sugar cane and sugar beets (table sugar)
145
sucrose composition
glucose and fructose
146
lactose
principal CHO of milk
147
lactose composition
glucose and galactose
148
maltose def
minor constituent of foods, most notably found in barley
148
maltose composition
glucose and glucose
149
lactose intolerance
inability to digest lactose due to deficiency in lactase. 25 percent of US adults are lactose intolerant.
150
starch def
rich in plant products including grains, root crops and tubers, and legumes
151
starch composition
varying levels of amylose and amylopectin
152
examples of grains
wheat and rice
152
examples of root crops and tubers
yams and potatoes
152
examples of legumes
beans and peas
153
glycogen def
main storage of glucose for animals, found in a limited extent in meats, but not a significant contributor of CHO in the diet.
154
the key about cellulose
we don't have the right tools to use it as an energy source. instead, it is used as fiber.
155
fiber def
structural components of plants that are indigestible by humans (cellulose)
156
fiber examples
dietary fibers and non starch polysaccharides
157
complex CHO sources
grains, legumes, root vegetables
158
foods made from grains
breads, cereals, pastas
159
examples of grains
wheat, corn, rice, rye, oats, barley, millet, quinoa, farro
160
whole grains vs refined grains
the difference is that the whole grain contains three components-- bran, endosperm, and germ-- whereas refined grain only has endosperm.
161
bran
fiber filled outer layer with B vitamins and minerals
162
endosperm
starchy carbohydrate middle layer with some proteins and vitamins
163
germ
nutrient packed core with B vitamins, vitamin E, phytochemicals, and healthy fats.
164
refining process effects
the germ and gran are removed, which contain the most of the fiber, protein, vitamins, minerals, fats, and antioxidants
165
the 100 percent stamp - whole grains
for products where all of the grain is whole grain. minimum requirement of 16 grams of whole grain per serving
166
a full serving of whole grain
16 g
167
the 50 percent stamp - whole grains
for products where at least 50 percent of the grain is whole grain. minimum requirement is 8g of whole grain per serving.
168
a half serving of whole grain
8g
169
the basic stamp - whole grains
for products that contain a significant amount of whole grain but which contain primarily refined grain. minimum requirement of 8g whole grain per serving
170
HFCS structure
enzymes convert starch into individual glucose molecules. additional enzymes convert some of the glucose into fructose.
171
HFCS percent composition
55 percent fructose and 45 percent glucose
172
sucrose percent composition
50 percent fructose and 50 percent glucose
173
path of fructose after consumption
once consumed, fructose is converted to glucose/glycogen and or fatty acids and STORED IN THE LIVER (becomes fat)
174
excessive fructose consumption
can lead to non alcoholic fatty liver disease, amongst other health concerns. increased TG, LDL-C, and visceral fat.
175
3 brush border enzymes
maltase, sucrase, lactase
176
salivary amylase
breaks down starch in the mouth secreted from the mouth
177
pancreatic amylase
breaks down starch in the small intestine secreted from the pancreas
178
maltase
breaks down maltose into glucose (secreted from small intestine)
179
sucrase
breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose (secreted from the small intestine)
180
lactase
breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose (secreted from small intestine)
181
digestion and absorption of CHO in the mouth
mechanical digestion and chemical digestion via salivary amylase
182
digestion and absorption of CHO in the stomach
CHO is halted because it is improper conditions for absorption
183
digestion and absorption of CHO in the small intestine
pancreatic enzymes and brush border enzymes break down CHOs. only monosac are absorbed.
184
digestion and absorption of CHO in the large intestine
bacterial enzymes digest some CHOs
185
final absorption of CHOs
once CHo are fully digested into monosaccharides they can be absorbed across the wall of the small intestine. the absorption across the intestinal wall occurs through enterocytes, and only monosaccharides can be absorbed through them
186
enterocytes
absorptive cells that absorb monosaccharides into the intestinal wall
187
path of CHOs after final digestion
once the monosaccharides enter the bloodstream, they are sent to the liver via the portal vein. in the liver, fructose and galactose are converted to glucose and glycogen.
188
where will glucose go next (metabolic stuff)
used for fuel in ATP production, stored as glycogen for glycogenesis, converted to fatty acids in adipose tissue for lipogenesis.
189
excess glucose storage
liver and skeletal muscle have a limited storage capacity for glycogen so it will enter lipogenesis
190
lipogenesis
the process of fatty acid and triglycerides synthesis. Excessive fructose consumption dramatically increases lipogenesis.
191
triglycerides from glucose
Fatty acids are combined with glycerol to form TAGs and stored
in fat cells (adipocytes).
192
Adequate intake for fiber
38 g per day for men. 25 g per day for women.
193
UL for fiber
there is no UL
194
RDA for CHOs
130 g a day for adults and children
195
AMDR range for CHO
45 to 65
196
dietary value of CHO in a 2,000 calorie diet
900 to 1300 kcals which is ~ 225 - 325 g of CHO
197
glucose is the ___________ source for ___________?
Primary source of energy for the brain and CNS
198
Muscle glycogen is ____________ source for ___________ especially ______________
Muscle glycogen is the primary energy source for the body, especially during exercise
199
Glucose is ________________ source for ____________ where __________ is _______________
Glucose is the primary energy source of RBCs, with ~90% is catabolized anaerobically
