Nuclear Age Flashcards
(34 cards)
1
Q
Description of Potsdam Conference
A
- Involved Truman, Churchill and Stalin
- Potsdam Declaration issued to Japan for unconditional surrender in July 1945
- Truman planned to use atomic bombs if necessary
2
Q
Truman’s quote on the Potsdam Conference
A
“the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction”
3
Q
Description of Manhattan Project and Trinity Test
A
- Manhattan Project was USA’s development and testing of atomic bombs (employed 130k, cost $2 billion USD)
- First atomic bomb tested was The Gadget
- Trinity Test was site’s code name in New Mexico
- Robert Oppenheimer was lead scientist for Trinity Test
- Stalin was aware of US nuclear research through espionage
4
Q
Impact and Legacy of the Dropping of the Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
A
- Hiroshima bombed by ‘Little Boy’ on 6 August 1945 in Operation Centreboard I
- 90% of Hiroshima was destroyed, 80 000 people killed immediately and 35 000 people injured
- Nagasaki bombed by ‘Fat Man’ on 9 August 1945 in Operation Centreboard II
- 70 000 people killed immediately in Nagasaki and 30, 000 injured
- Tens of thousands of people died from exposure in years to come through cancer, sickness and burns from excessive radiation exposure
- Overall killed 237 000
- Caused Japan’s unconditional surrender
- Threatened Soviets
5
Q
Truman and the Debate on the Use of the Bomb
A
- Japanese rejected Potsdam Declaration to surrender due to dishonour
- Greater threat for conventional fighting (Operation Downfall) as it would have caused significant loss of American lives through prolonged attrition warfare as Japanese fought to the death
- Japan could inflict serious damage on Allies as it still occupied Indochina/Malaya/parts of East Indies, had kamikaze pilots, could utilise submarines, controlled thousands of POWs
- America sought revenge for Pearl Harbour and Bataan Death March
- America’s rivalry with USSR was mounting so they wanted to warn Soviets of their power and abilities to prevent power grabs
- Criticised as there were alternatives such as conventional bombing, continuing naval blockade or waiting for Soviets to invade Manchuria and put pressure on Japan
6
Q
Truman’s quote for the Debate on the Use of the Bomb
A
“We have used it against those who attacked us without warning at Pearl Harbour … We have used it in order to shorten the agony of young Americans”
7
Q
Truman’s quote against the Debate on the Use of the Bomb
A
“The war of the future would be one in which man could extinguish millions of lives with one blow … Such a war is not a possible policy for rational men”
8
Q
Philip Jenkins’ quote for the Debate on the Use of the Bomb
A
A mainland attack would have been detrimental to the “thousands of civilians who were dying under Japanese occupation … murder of all Allied POWs in Japanese hands … about ten million dead”
9
Q
US and Soviet Nuclear Capacity 1945 – 2011
A
- USSR rapidly increased their stockpile in the 1950s, had 1 in 1949 and 1048 in 1959
- US peaked in 1967 with over 31 000 warheads
- SALT I and II in 1972 for nuclear deterrence but failed as superpowers introduced MIRV technology to deliver multiple warheads in multiple locations from one missile
- USSR continued to increase stockpiles, with 30 000 in 1980
- US decreased slightly and had 24 000 in 1980
- US announced Strategic Defence Initiative (STI) aka Star Wars in 1984 which threatened MAD, and US began to decrease stockpile in this year as USSR economic capabilities would be unable to maintain strengthening stockpiles
- Soviets peaked in 1986 with over 40 000 warheads
- US economy was twice the size of Soviets in 1980s, Soviets went bankrupt and dissolved in 1991
- 1991 START I Treaty was effective as USA and Russia stopped testing nuclear weaponry and they consistently reduced their arsenal
- Nuclear disarmament began after Cold War ended
- US had over 10 000 and Russia had over 12 000 weapons in 2000
- US had less than 5000 and Russia had 5000 in 2010
10
Q
Doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)
A
- Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) meant nuclear war was not feasible
- Extended Nuclear Deterrence (END) meant country’s nuclear arsenal is extended to protect allies (nuclear umbrella)
- MAD exemplified in 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis as neither USA or Soviets directly attacked one another
- MAD threatened by Strategic Defence Initiative (STI) aka Star Wars in 1984 as Soviets would be unable to retaliate
11
Q
JFK’s quote on Doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)
A
Promised a “full retaliatory response” on the Soviet Union if there was any attack on the United States during 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
12
Q
Stephen Younger’s quote on Doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)
A
“Nuclear weapons have helped to avoid a large-scale conflict between leading world powers for over fifty years”
13
Q
Civilian Fears and State Programs in the USA to Survive the Bomb and Fallout
A
- Training films for children such as ‘Duck and Cover’ with Bert the Turtle
- Educational films in cinemas
- Dog tags issued to children so families could identify them
- Fallout shelters and sirens in every city
- 19 000 public buildings turned into fallout shelters
- JFK encouraged people to build their own shelters but only 1.4% of Americans had fallout shelters in their homes
- US government published ‘How to Survive an Atomic Bomb’
14
Q
Civil-defence Chief Pittman’s quote on Civilian Fears and State Programs in the USA to Survive the Bomb and Fallout
A
Fallout shelters were ineffective but gave “presently unprotected population some form of protection”
15
Q
‘How to Survive an Atomic Bomb’ quote on Civilian Fears and State Programs in the USA to Survive the Bomb and Fallout
A
Fallout was “not likely to hurt you” if you took the correct precautions
16
Q
Nature and Impact of Nuclear Tests in the US
A
- US tests at Runit Island in 1958 left a crater, untrained soldiers buried 80 000 cubic metres of nuclear waste in the crater and covered it with concrete and abandoned it, troops suffered from illnesses and premature deaths from radiation exposure
- US tests at Bikini Atoll resulted in the knowledge of the dangers of fall-out and the difficulty in removing it from surfaces
- US funnelled between $5.5 trillion to $10 trillion into the arms race and neglected crime, poverty, riots, pollution and infrastructural decay
17
Q
Nature and Impact of Nuclear Tests in the Soviet Union
A
- USSR tests at Kazakhstan Semipalatinsk testing facility aka Polygon in 1940s to 1960s exposed radiation to 1.5 million people, caused 50% rise in chromosomal birth defects in children and spanned generations, 1 in every 20 children born with deformity increased exposed people’s likelihood of cancer
- 4 atmospherical tests caused 95% of collective radiation exposure, 1956 test hospitalised 600 people that were 400km away, affected over 351 000 people across 3 generations with over a third dying
- USSR was crippled by arms race, went bankrupt, and dissolved in 1991
18
Q
Richard Rhodes’ quote on Impact of Nuclear Tests in the US
A
US had “ramshackle cities, broken bridges, failing schools, entrenched poverty … and secretive national security state”
19
Q
Selection of Maralinga for British Nuclear Tests, State Secrecy and Impact of the Tests on Local Aboriginal People, Australian Service Personnel and the Environment
A
- British began testing nukes at Maralinga in 1953 under Official Secrets Act
- Australian defence personnel involved were not given protective clothing, pressurised aircraft or sufficient information of tests and impacts but flew through flumes of fallout
- Defence personnel had cancer rate 23% higher than general population and cancer mortality rate 18% higher than general population
- 1200 Aboriginal people were exposed to radiation and many were removed from traditional lands
- Government refused to compensate servicemen until 1988 when it negotiated with a few servicemen
- Government paid $13.5 million as compensation to Maralinga Aboriginals
- Bombs used Plutonium-239 which has half-life of 24 000 years and minuscule quantities can cause lung/bone/liver cancers
- British initiated 1967 Operation Brumby to turn over contaminated soil, bury equipment and place concrete caps on pits but it stirred up contaminated dust that was dispersed by wind
- Royal Commission found significant radiation hazards in Maralinga in 1984 and initiated second clean up that cost $108 million
- Contamination still remains
20
Q
Yami Lester’s quote on Impact of the Maralinga Tests on Local Aboriginal People
A
“We all got very sick - sore eyes, vomiting, skin rashes, diarrhoea. Some people died … I lost sight in my left eye and about three weeks later I lost my right eye too”
21
Q
Alan Parkinson’s quote on Impact of the Maralinga Tests on the Environment
A
The clean-up at Maralinga “was a cheap and nasty solution that wouldn’t be adopted on white-fellas land”
22
Q
Nature and Impact of French Nuclear Tests in the Pacific, and the International Response
A
- France tested 210 nuclear weapons at Mururoa and Fangataufa atolls from 1966 to 1996, and atmospheric testing contaminated Pacific and dispersed fallout
- In 1973 New Zealand and Australia took France to International Court of Justice to ban nuclear tests but France ignored the court’s ruling to cease testing
- New Zealand pressured France so testing moved underground but atoll cracked and threatened to spill nuclear radiation into Pacific
- Chose to continue testing albeit international pressure in 1995
- Australia and New Zealand removed French ambassadors
- Polynesian protests and riots
- Polynesian thyroid cancer rates between 1985 and 1995 rose
23
Q
Cause, Description and Impact of the Rainbow Warrior Incident
A
- Greenpeace vessel Rainbow Warrior could carry large amounts of supplies and had communications equipment to maintain contact with Greenpeace members and international news organisations, which was a threat to French as it could protest for long periods of time and military force could not be used on nonviolent protestors
- Operation Satanique 1985 involved French secret agents setting off two bombs onboard Rainbow Warrior in New Zealand on its way to a protest French nuclear test, and the ship sank and killed crew member Fernando Pereira
- France initially denied involvement, launched investigation and concluded the agents were only conducting espionage but did not sink Rainbow Warrior
- Political tensions between France and New Zealand rose, France boycotted exports to New Zealand and threatened access to European Economic Community
- France paid $8.16 million to Greenpeace in damages and apologised
24
Q
Anti-Nuclear Movements
A
- 1979 New York anti-nuclear protest with 200 000 people after Three Mile Island Accident
- Mass protests after 1986 Chernobyl Incident
- Greenpeace protests
- Global Zero aims to remove all nuclear weaponry by 2030 and reduce the reliance on them for defence
- Arms Control Association
- UK established Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) in 1957 and advocated for disarmament, greater international regulations on proliferation, and opposed military action that could result in nuclear warfare
25
Role of the United Nations in Nuclear Disarmament
- 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty banned atmospheric, exoatmospheric and underwater tests
- 1968 Non-proliferation Treaty to prevent the spread of nuclear weaponry
- 1991 START I Treaty caused USA and Russia to stop testing nuclear weaponry and they consistently reduced their arsenal
- UN established 5 Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones to prevent these areas from manufacturing, acquiring, testing, and possessing nuclear weapons (Oceania, Africa, South America, Antarctica and parts of Asia)
26
Nuclear Disarmament after the Cold War
- Many US and USSR warheads have been moved from operational status to reserve, inactive or contingency
- 2002 Strategic Offensive Treaty between US and Russia limited each side to between 1700 and 2200 operationally deployed warheads
- 2010 New START aims to decrease strategic nuclear missile launchers by half before 2021 but does not limit operationally inactive warheads, US and Russia still have 90% of global stockpile
27
Issues of Proliferation 1945 – 2011
- Israel does not disclose number of warheads (could be 90 with capacity to make 200) or plutonium and has defensive reasons as to why it may proliferate as it is a Jewish state in an Arabic region
- India developed nukes (156 but capacity to make 100) in response to rivalry with Pakistan and China
- Pakistan developed nukes in response to India’s proliferation (has 165)
- Iran attempted to develop a nuclear weapon but dismantled program after international sanctions (breached International Atomic Authority agreement)
- North Korea has withdrawn from Non-Proliferation Treaty and had nuclear tests in 2009, 2013 and 2017
28
Contributions of Nuclear Medicine
- Nuclear medical imaging is used to detect/treat tumours, aneurysms, blood cell disorders, bone disease, gall bladder disease, thyroid disease and track heart disease progression
- May be able to detect dementia, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s
- 100% diagnostic success
- Patients are given radiopharmaceuticals to detect function of organs, or undergo PET scans
- Precise, non-invasive and low radiation
29
Positive Contributions of Nuclear Energy
- Sustainable as it cuts carbon emissions, only emits hot water into the environment and reduces reliance on oil
- Has saved 1.8 million lives by displacing air pollution
- Responsible for 10% of world’s electricity (30% of US enery, 13% for China, and 8% for Russia)
- Capacity factor of 92% (coal is 48%, natural gas is 57%)
- 443 commercial nuclear reactors and 220 research reactors for medical/industrial isotopes
- Releases less radiation than any other major energy sources such as coal, even during accidents
- Even the worst nuclear disaster is not as bad as other energy source disasters (India’s Bhopal disaster killed 3800 immediately with gas leak, China’s hydroelectric dam failed and drowned 26 000 people)
- Waste is stored safely in impenetrable concrete and steel casks
30
Negative Contributions of Nuclear Energy
- Uranium fuel is finite
- Uranium and plutonium can be separated from fuel to be used in bombs
- Requires constant and massive amounts of water to cool superheated cores which causes thermal pollution of water systems
- Has to be close to sea level which increases the risk of accidents during bad weather and rising sea levels (Fukushima)
- Incredibly expensive to use and maintain
- Unadaptable and not versatile as it must be shut off for weather or accidents and this causes loss of much needed electricity
- Nuclear waste remains radioactive for millions of years as the half-life of Uranium 238 is 4.5 million years
- Countries that rely on nuclear power lack other resources and facilities so they would suffer economic difficulties in the long run
- High-profile accidents exemplify the dangers of this industry
- Germany is phasing out its nuclear power plants and all will be shut down by 2022 as people have opposed nuclear energy since 1970s due to accidents
31
Radioactive Waste and Issues of Storage, Safety and Security
- Nuclear waste remains radioactive for millions of years as the half-life of Uranium 238 is 4.5 million years
- Used fuel is reprocessed to regain uranium and plutonium and is then stored deep underground which requires stable geological environment, drilling shafts up to a kilometre below the earth’s surface, and storing and sealing off drums of nuclear waste
- Access to nuclear waste causes fears regarding terrorist groups obtaining uranium or plutonium and utilising them in atomic bombs
32
Cause and Impact of Critical Incident at Chernobyl
- 1986 Chernobyl disaster caused by Soviet RBMK reactor that had design faults
- 29 workers died due to acute radiation sickness
- Official death toll is 56 but could be up to 4000 due to fallout
- Pripyat and surrounding areas were evacuated (335 000 people)
- Fallout contaminated 23% of Belarus which caused the loss of one fifth of agricultural land
- Radiation spread to Scandinavia, 5x high in Denmark, 6x high in Finland, 50% increase in Norway
- Generational damage and predisposition to thyroid issues and cancer as children are impacted by Iodine-131 from contaminated breastmilk
- Ove 6000 children and adolescents developed thyroid cancer after being exposed to radiation from the incident
- Area is still radioactive
33
Cause and Impact of Critical Incident at Fukushima
- 2011 Fukushima disaster caused by strong earthquake and tsunami that submerged plant, old equipment and lack of safety measures
- No deaths but 16 injured
- 154 000 people evacuated and surrounding areas are still abandoned
- Plant still releases radioactive material
- Almost 1.25 million tons of water is stored (full capacity) needs to be treated and released into Pacific
34
World Nuclear Association's quote on Positive Contributions of Nuclear Energy
“CO2 emissions associated with nuclear energy are among the lowest of all forms of electricity generation … nuclear industry is responsible for less than 0.1% of the radiation that most people are exposed to”
