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PHARM 111 > Nutrition > Flashcards

Nutrition Flashcards

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1
Q

What are major nutrients vs micronutrients?

A

Major nutrients: carbs, lipids and proteins

Micronutrients: required in small amounts (ex vitamins and minerals)

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2
Q

What are essential vs nonessential nutrients

A

Essential: must be eaten because the body cannot synthesize these from other nutrients
Nonessential: also vital to life, but if not enough is available, the liver can convert another nutrient into the one needed

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3
Q

Define calorie

A

The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1kg of water by one degree

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4
Q

Define oligosaccharide vs polysaccharide

A

Oligosaccharide: up to 9 or 10 monosaccharides covalently linked
Polysaccharides: polymers consisting of chains on monosaccharide or disaccharide units

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5
Q

Define starch. What are the two types?

A

Starch: glucose polymers that have alpha-linkage bonds (alpha 1,4) in plants
Amylose: a linear chain of >100 glucose molecules
Amylopectin: branched molecule made of >1000 glucose units

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6
Q

Define glycogen

A

Polysaccharide found in animals and composed of a branched chain of glucose residues

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7
Q

What are the storage polysaccharides?

A

Starch and glycogen

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8
Q

What are the structural polysaccharides?

A

Cellulose and chitin

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9
Q

What is cellulose?

A

Structural component of plants with glucose units bonded by beta 1,4 linkages
Dietary fiber in humans because we cannot digest it
Ruminants and termites can digest it

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10
Q

What is chitin?

A

Long unbranched chains of glucose similar to cellulose
Component of the cell walls of exoskeletons of crustaceans, plants and insects
Also dietary fibre if we eat it

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11
Q

How much carb do we need per day?

A

100g/day

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12
Q

What is the difference between complex and refined carbohydrates?

A

Complex: starchy foods and milk have vitamins and minerals too
Refined: provide glucose only, referred to as empty calories

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13
Q

What are sources of saturated and unsaturated fats, cholesterol and essential fatty acids?

A

Saturated fats: meat, dairy, some tropical plants, and hydrogenated oils such as margarine and solid shortening
Unsaturated fats: seeds, nuts, olive and veggie oils
Cholesterol: egg yolk, meats, shellfish, milk. Liver produces 85% of required cholesterol, so we don’t need much
Essential FA: linoleic and linoleic acid in most veggies, fish and shellfish

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14
Q

What do fats do in the body?

A

Vitamin absorption
Fuel for hepatocytes and skeletal muscle
Component of myelin sheaths
Component of cell membranes

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15
Q

What does cholesterol do in the body?

A

Stabilizes membranes

Precursor of bile salts and steroid hormones

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16
Q

How much cholesterol should we have in a day?

A

SHould not exceed 200mg/dy

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17
Q

What is an example of a fat substitute?

A

Olestra: not metabolized because it isn’t digested or absorbed
Drawbacks: can’t be used for frying, interferes with absorption of fat soluble drugs and phytochemicals

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18
Q

What are dietary sources of protein?

A

Eggs, milk, fish and most meats have all the body’s AA requirements
Legumes, nuts and cereals are protein-rich, but low in one or more essential AA
Leafy greens contain all the essential AAs except methionine, but have small amounts only

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19
Q

What are the essential AAs?

A 
Tryptophan
Methionine
Valine
Threonine
Phenylalanine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Lysine
Infants: histidine, arginine
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20
Q

What is the recommended intake of protein?

A

0.8g/kg

Prolonged high protein consumption may lead to bone loss

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21
Q

Which vitamins are made in the body?

A 
Vitamin D (skin)
Vitamin B and K (intestinal bacteria)
Vitamin A (converted from beta-carotene)
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22
Q

Compare absorption of fat soluble vs water soluble vitamins

A

fat soluble: bind to ingested lipids and absorbed with their digestion products
Water soluble: absorbed in the GI tract. Anything not used within an hour are excreted in urine

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23
Q

Which vitamins are involved in the antioxidant cascade?

A

A,C,E

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24
Q

Which are the major minerals?

A

Calcium and phosphorous

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25
What is the role of ATP in metabolism?
Serves as the chemical drive shaft that links energy-releasing catabolic reactions to cellular work ATP is never directly hydrolyzed-- phosphate group is shifted to other molecules
26
What are the 3 stages of metabolism?
Stage 1: digestion and absorption in the GI tract Stage 2: nutrients are built into lipids, proteins and glycogen by anabolic pathways or broken down by catabolic pathways to pyruvate and acetyl CoA (mostly catabolic) Stage 2: Oxidative breakdown of stage 2 products. almost entirely catabolic, requires O2 to produce CO2, water and ATP
27
What are oxidation and reduction reactions?
Oxidation: lose electrons Reduction: gain electrons Catalyzed by enzymes that usually require a B vitamin coenzyme
28
What do dehydrogenases and oxidases do?
dehydrogenases: catalyze removal of hydrogen Oxidase: catalyze transfer of oxygen
29
What are the 3 pathways that catabolize glucose?
1. glycolysis 2. krebs cycle 3. electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
30
What does glycolysis generate?
4 ATP and 2 NADH, 2 net ATP
31
What is generated during krebs cycle?
``` 3 NADH + H 1 FADH2 2 CO2 1 ATP x2 for every glucose molecule ```
32
What are the carrier proteins involved in the ETC?
Flavins: derived from riboflavin (vitamin B2) and form ETC complexes I and II Cytochromes: proteins with an iron containing pigment (complexes III and IV) Neighbouring complexes cluster together to form respiratory enzyme complexes
33
What are the 3 major steps of the ETC?
Step 1: complexes I and II accept hydrogen from NADH and FADH2 respectively Step 2: Hydrogen atoms are split into H+ (proton) and electrons (e-) Step 3: At complex IV, electron pairs combine with H and oxygen to form water
34
What happens during step 2 of the ETC (H atoms split)
Electrons are passed down Coenzyme Q and cytochrome C act to shuttle electron between complexes A little energy from the electron is release with each transfer This energy is used by the complexes to pump out H into the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient
35
What does ATP synthase yield?
NADH oxidation yields max 2.5 ATP | FADH oxidation yields 1.5 ATP
36
How efficient is ATP production?
38% efficient
37
How many ATPs do we get from substrate-level phosphorylation, and oxidative phosphorylation?
Substrate level: net 4 ATPs (2 from glycolysis, 2 from citric acid cycle) Oxidative: net 28 (2.5/NADHx10, 1.5/FADHx2)
38
Define glycogenesis vs glycogenolysis?
Glycogenesis: Formation of glycogen in liver and skeletal muscle Glycogenolysis: breakdown of glycogen
39
How does glycogenolysis differ in the liver?
Hepatocyte contain glucose-6-phosphatase, so glucose can leave the cell and enter the bloodstream
40
What is gluconeogenesis? What are the 4 enzymes required?
``` Forming new sugars from other molecules Costs 6ATP to make, but important during starvation to make sure the brain gets enough glucose Pyruvate carboxylase PeP carboxylase glucose-6-phosphatase fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase ```
41
What is the body's most concentrated source of energy?
Fats. | Only triglycerides are routinely oxidized for energy
42
How are lipids metabolized?
Lipase breaks them down into glycerol and fatty acids Glycerol is then converted into glyceraldehyde phosphate Fatty acids undergo beta oxidation, which produces 2 acetyl CoA per round of activity
43
What happens to the products of protein metabolism?
AA are recycled or modified to form a different compound | Excess AAs are used for anabolic purposes and oxidized for energy or converted to fat
44
What are the key steps of protein metabolism?
1. Transamination 2. Oxidative deamination 3. Keto-acid modification Key molecule is glutamic acid
45
What happens during transamination of proteins
AAs transfer their amine group to alpha-ketoglutaric acid using the aminotransferase PLP, forming glutamate
46
What can aminotransferases tell us?
Blood levels of aminotransferases are important indicators of liver disease
47
What happens during oxidative deamination of proteins?
In liver, glutamic acid's amine group is removed as ammonia, regenerating alpha-ketoglutarate Ammonia is combined with CO2, giving urea and water
48
What happens during keto acid modification of proteins?
Keto acids can produce pyruvate, acetyl CoA, alpha ketoglutarate and oxaloacetate
49
What is the goal of amino acid degradation?
To produce molecules that can be: oxidized in the krebs cycle converted to ketones or glucose
50
Define absorptive vs postabsorptive state
Absorptive state: for the 4 hours during and after a meal Postabsorptive state: aka, fasting state, the time when the GI tract is empty and energy is supplied by body reserves. Can sustain the body for several weeks of fasting
51
What happens to carbohydrates during the absorptive state?
Fructose and galactose converted to glucose in the liver Glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and skeletal muscle In the liver, fat+proteins packaged as VLDLs and released for storage
52
What happens to fats during the absorptive state?
Enters the lymph as chylomicrons. Chylomicrons needs to be hydrolyzed to FA and glycerol before they can pass through capillary walls Lipase catalyzes fat hydrolysis TG is the primary energy source in adipose, skeletal muscle and liver cells In adipose tissue, fat can be reconverted to TG and stored.
53
What happens to amino acids during the absorptive state?
Some are deliver to liver, where they're deaminated to keto acids or converted to fat Used for protein synthesis
54
What is the effect of insulin on metabolism?
Insulin is the key hormone during the absorptive state
55
What hormones enhance glucose-induced insulin release?
GIP and GLP1
56
What happens during the postabsorptive state?
Catabolism begins, goal is to maintain blood glucose levels mainly for use by the brain Most events either make glucose available or save it for the brain
57
What are 4 sources of blood glucose during the postabsorptive state?
1) glycogenolysis in liver 2) glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle 3) lipolysis in adipose tissues and liver 4) catabolism of cellular protein (limited amount can be used before we get damage)
58
What is glucose sparing and when does it happen?
During prolonged periods of fasting, body uses noncarb sources to conserve glucose for the brain After 4-5 days, when there's no more glucose left, the brain still start to use ketone bodies
59
What is the role of the liver in carb metabolism?
Converts galactose and fructose to glucoe Stores glucose as glycogen Gluconeogenesis Converts glucose to fats for storage
60
What is the role of the liver in fat metabolism?
Beta oxidation (breakdown of fatty acids to acetyl CoA) Converts excess acetyl CoA to ketone bodies Stores fats Lipoprotein formation Cholesterol and bile salt synthesis
61
What is the role of the liver in protein metabolism?
1. Amino acid deamination (reqwuired for conversion to glucose or use for ATP synthesis) 2. Urea formation 3. Forms most plasma proteins 4. Transamination
62
What is the role of the liver in vitamin/mineral storage?
1. Stores vitamin A 2. Stores vitamin D and B12 3. Stores iron
63
What is the role of the liver in biotransformation?
Alcohol and drug metabolism | Processes bilirubin
64
What is cholesterol used for?
Structural basis of bile salts, steroid hormones and vitamin D major component of plasma membranes
65
How is cholesterol transported in the body?
Must be transported bound to lipid-protein complexes called lipoproteins
66
What is the major component of VLDLs, LDLs and HDLs?
VLDL: triglyceride LDL: cholesterol HDL: protein
67
What is the major protein and lipid of: | chylomicrons, VLDLs, LDLs, and HDLs?
Chylomicrons: ApoB, TG VLDL: ApoB, TG LDL: ApoB, cholesteryl ester HDL: ApoA, cholesteryl ester
68
What is the primary source of VLDLs? What do they do?
Primary source is the liver | They transport TGs to the peripheral tissues and are then converted to cholesterol rich LDLs
69
What is the role of LDLs?
Transport cholesterol to peripheral tissues
70
What is ACAT?
Enzyme that allows for cholesterol esters to be stored in cells
71
What do HDLs do?
Scoop up and transport excess cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver Service the needs of steroid-producing organs, which can remove cholesterol from them without engulfing them Good to have lots of them!
72
What is LCAT?
Enzyme that modifies cholesterol and loads it into the HDL particle
73
What is apolipoprotein A?
A type of LDL that's really bad Promotes plaque formation, doubles risk of heart attack more common to have high levels in males
74
What effect do saturated and unsaturated FAs have on cholesterol?
Saturated FAs: stimulate liver synthesis of cholesterol and inhibit excretion Unsaturated FAs: enhance excretion of cholesterol and conversion to bile salts
75
What is the role of omega-3 FAs on cholesterol levels?
Can lower proportions of saturated fats and cholesterol. Also have an antiarrhythmic effect on the heart and make blood platelets less sticky, preventing spontaneous clotting
76
What are the two systems that regulate food intake?
NPY/AgRP neurons: release neuropeptide Y and agouti-related peptide, which enhance appetite and reduce metabolism (fat saving, starvation mode) POMC/CART neurons: replease POMC and CART, which are appetite-suppressing peptides
77
How do we calculate BMI?
weight (lbs) x 705/height in inches^2
78
What BMI is overweight and obese?
Overweight: 25-30 Obese: >30
79
What organs account for most heat production at rest?
Liver, heart, brain and endocrine organs
80
What are the four mechanisms of heat exchange?
Radiation, conduction, convection, evaporation
81
What are the two regions of the hypothalamus responsible for heat regulation?
``` Preoptic area (promotes heat loss) Posterior hypothalamus (promotes heat conservation) ```
82
What are 4 things the hypothalamus will initiate to conserve heat?
Vasoconstriction Nonshivering thermogenesis Shivering Thyroid hormone to increase metabolism
83
What are 3 things the hypothalamus will initiate to promote heat loss?
Vasodilation Sweating (only effective is air is dry) Voluntary measures

PHARM 111 (3 decks)

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