Nutrition Flashcards
(470 cards)
1
Q
What affects nutrient availability?
A
Digestibility of diet, species differences in GI tract and metabolism, nutrient interactions in diet and husbandry factors - freshness of diet, storage and spoilage
2
Q
Which nutrient requirement does fibre/fat increase?
A
Taurine
3
Q
Which mineral availability does phytate reduce?
A
Zinc
4
Q
Why do animal eat, and what is the exception?
A
To fulfil energy requirements, except in RUMINANTS on high fibre diets where stomach fill is important
5
Q
What is the definition of a calorie?
A
Energy required to heat 1g of water from 15.5 degrees C to 16.5 degrees C
6
Q
How do you measure the total energy in a food?
A
Kilojoules obtained after total combustion in a bomb calorimeter. Not all available to animal.
7
Q
What is digestible energy?
A
Gross (total) energy minus faecal loss of energy as undigested fibre.
8
Q
What is metabolisable energy?
A
Digestible energy minus urinary and methane loss
9
Q
What is the metabolisable energy requirement (MER)?
A
Energy required by an inactive animal in thermoneutral conditions including the energy required to obtain and digest food
10
Q
How does MER vary within species?
A
The higher the MER relative to body weight, the more energy needed - eg shrew has very high MER relative to body weight so must eat continually
11
Q
How is MER calculated for dogs and cats?
A
For dogs - 100 x body weight ^ 0.75 kcal per day
For cats - 70 x weight kcal per day (a linear approximation because weight doesn’t vary much)
12
Q
What is an overview of the diet of a herbivore?
A
Cellulose mainly. Dietary starch and glucose minimal so gluconeogenesis important
13
Q
Overview of the diet of a carnivore?
A
Mostly protein. Starch and glucose minimal so gluconeogenesis important
14
Q
Overview of the diet of an omnivore?
A
Significant starch and glucose. Stored as glycogen and fat. Gluconeogenesis only in fasting.
15
Q
Which bond in cellulose can mammalian enzymes not break down?
A
Beta-1,4-glucose
16
Q
Differences between ruminant and non-ruminant herbivores?
A
Non-ruminant herbivores have microbial fermentation in a modified large intestine. Cellulose digestion is less efficient. BUT there is some normal digestion further up the gut first so glucose can be absorbed before microbial fermentation.
17
Q
Why is some bacterial breakdown of fibre in the large intestine important in omnivores?
A
Butyrate from colonic bacterial fermentation provides 50% of energy needs of colonic epithelial cells - may prevent colonic cancer
18
Q
What is the difference in bacteria in the colon and small intestine?
A
In the colon gram negative and anaerobes dominate. In the small intestine, there is fewer bacteria which is mainly aerobic with fewer gram negatives
19
Q
Differences between parts of ruminant stomach?
A
Microbial fermentation in rumen and reticulum. No secretory glands or enzymes in rumen, reticulum or omasum. Acid pH and enzymes in the abomasum.
20
Q
Problems with rumination
A
Loses control of diet constituents, saccharides and starch broken down so adult ruminants can’t get glucose from diet. Starch escaping fermentation isn’t used because maltase activity is low and glucose absoption is poor.
21
Q
Rumen volume
A
40 gallons
22
Q
Rumen pH
A
6.8
23
Q
Rumen temperature
A
38-40 degrees C
24
Q
Which vitamins do rumen bacteria need?
A
Biotin and other B vitamins
25
What kind of bacteria are in the rumen?
Gram-negative anaerobes
26
Which vitamins do ruminal bacteria synthesize?
Vitamin K and most vitamin B requirements
27
What is the function of ruminal protozoa?
Metabolise cellulose and store it as a polysaccharide like starch. Feed on bacteria so if protozoa die then bacteria numbers increase. More sensitive to pH so die earlier in ruminal acidosis.
28
What age are ruminal microflora present from?
14 days after inoculation from older animal
29
What is the process of starch or cellulose metabolism in the rumen?
Starch/cellulose to short chain fatty acids then to glucose or ketones/fat
30
What is the process of protein and non-protein nitrogen metabolism in the rumen?
Firstly to microbial protein and then the host digests the microbes and absorbs the amino acids
31
Why does a dairy cow need lots of glucose?
To make lactose
32
Why are lots of methane, hydrogen and short chain fatty acids produced during microbial metabolism?
Because oxidation of carbohydrates and proteins must be accompanied by a reduction so there are reduced waste products
33
What fraction of ruminant calorie intakes is supplied by short chain fatty acids?
2/3
34
What are the main short chain fatty acids in microbial metabolism?
Acetate, propionate, butyrate and some valerate and isovalerate.
35
What is propionate used for?
Into liver and muscles to make glucose
36
Why do ruminants use glucose not fatty acids?
For nutrition of cells with no mitochondria or lacking oxygen supply, can't use ketone bodies in brain, need lactose and glycerol for milk triglycerides, can be stored as glycogen, source of fructose for sperm, used for TCA cycle intermediates
37
What percentage of total body glucose is used for milk production at peak lactation?
85%
38
For the first how many weeks of lactation is there a negative energy balance?
Six
39
Which short chain fatty acid are used to make glucose?
Propionate and gluconeogenic amino acids
40
What is the fate of acetate and butyrate in a ruminant?
Converted to acetyl CoA and oxidised to make ketone bodies or fatty acids (ketogenic or lipogenic BUT NOT gluconeogenic)
41
What percentage of its glucose does a sheep get from propionate? And what percentage from gluconeogenic amino acids? Lactate? Glycerol?
40% and 35%, 15%, 10%
42
In a fasting ruminant what happens to propionate and where does the animal get the extra glucose from?
Propionate production decreases and more glucose is gained from glycerol and amino acids
43
Which factors affect nutrients intake?
Amount of diet fed and the availability of nutrients in the diet
44
Proportion of propionate converted to lactate during passage through ruminal wall
1/5
45
When is hepatic gluconeogenesis maximal in ruminants? How is this different in man and dogs?
After a meal when most propionate reaches the liver in the portal blood. Gluconeogenesis reduced after a meal in man and dogs due to increased insulin which inhibits gluconeogenesis.
46
What stimulates insulin release in ruminants?
Propionate, butyrate, isovalerate and valerate
47
Why is it better for less glucose to be derived from gluconeogenic amino acids in ruminants?
Important for making structural body proteins
48
How does increased roughage (cellulose) affect acetate and propionate?
Increased acetate, decreased propionate
49
How does increased concentrates affect propionate, butyrate and acetate levels?
Increased propionate and butyrate, decreased acetate
50
How does heating/cooking the ration affect propionate production?
Increases it
51
What percentages acetate, propionate and butyrate does the average dairy cow produce?
60-70, 15-20, 10-15
52
How is lactic acidosis caused?
Too much concentrate feed, increased lactic acid production, drop in pH, buffering capacity exceeded, desirable microflora inhibited and protozoa die so lactate producer grow favoured.
53
Effects of lactic acidosis
Damage to rumen wall causing bacterial infection, bacteraemia, liver abscesses, general acidosis of blood, water pulled into rumen by osmosis so hypovolaemia (reduced circulating volume), death
54
Which form of lactate accumulates during lactic acidosis
D forms as metabolised much more slowly than L
55
Why isn't propionate fed directly to high yielding dairy cows?
Would inhibit propionate-producing microbes in rumen favouring acetate and butyrate producers causing severe propionate shortage if cow goes off food, stimulates insulin release which suppresses fatty acid release so milk fat concentration lowered, depresses appetite, unpalatable
56
What is the fate of triglycerides, phospholipids and cholesterol esters in the rumen?
Hydrolysed to glycerol and galactose which are fermented to short-chain fatty acids
57
What are the main lipogenic short chain fatty acids generated by microbial fermentation and which is the most important?
Acetate and butyrate, acetate is the most important
58
What do ruminal microflora do to dietary unsaturated fatty acids?
Hydrogenate them to saturated fatty acids
59
How does a high dietary content of unsaturated fatty acids affect microflora?
Depresses them
60
How does increased dietary fat affect propionate production?
Increases it
61
Where does most fatty acid and triacylglycerol synthesis occur in the non-lactating ruminant? What about a lactating ruminant?
Adipose tissue and mammary gland when lactating
62
What is the main source of absorbable amino acids for a ruminant?
Microbial protein from digestion of microbes further down the gut
63
How much protein does host ruminant "make" per 100g ingested organic matter?
12g
64
How do ruminants use non-protein nitrogen
Microbial ureases break it down to ammonia, then used to make microbial protein
65
Why don't ruminants have any dietary requirement for essential amino acids?
All made by microflora as long as building blocks eg sulphur provided in diet
66
Why do high-yielding dairy cows require essential amino acids?
Their demand for amino acids is so high
67
What is the fate of most dietary nitrogen in ruminants?
Degraded by microbes by hydrolysis and deamination producing ammonia and carbon skeletons
68
What happens if energy is surplus in the rumen?
Microbial growth not limited, microbial cell growth increases with ruminal ammonia concentration
69
Which ammonia concentrations are dangerous to the host?
Above 4.5mmol/l
70
What happens the rumen ammonia concentration if carbohydrate or another essential component is lacking from the diet?
Ammonia concentration will rise
71
What percentage of ammonia produced in the rumen is incorporated into microbial protein?
90%
72
How is ammonia "recycled" in ruminants?
Ammonia absorbed into blood and converted to urea, urea either diffuses back in or is secreted into saliva. Then ureases break it back down to ammonia.
73
How is recycling of ammonia in ruminants useful?
Can metabolise more bicarbonate via CO2 which is helpful for acid-base balance as they have an excess of bicarbonate.
74
Why do ruminants have an excess of bicarbonate?
Plants contains lots of organic acids metabolised to bicarbonate.
75
What is an "escape protein" or "rumen undegradable protein"
Less soluble in rumen and resistant to microbial degradation. Pass unchanged to small intestine where they are digested similarly to man and dogs
76
Where are the enzymes most important for protein digestion in the small intestine produced?
Pancreas
77
In which area of the intestine does highest amino acid uptake occur in cows, and why is this further down than in dogs and man?
Mid to lower ileum because acid abomasal digesta is neutralised slowly and pancreatic enzymes are neutralised slowly
78
What % of dietary protein is nitrogen and what % is non-protein nitrogen?
85% true protein, 15% non-protein nitrogen
79
What % of dietary nitrogen is recycled into the rumen?
12%
80
What % of dietary protein is escape protein?
40%
81
What % of dietary non-protein nitrogen and recycled nitrogen is degraded by microbes?
100%
82
What % of amino acids available for absorption in the small intestine come from microbial nitrogen?
60-80%
83
What % of amino acids used to make milk proteins come from microbes?
65%
84
What % of microbial nitrogen is true protein usable by the host?
80%
85
What % of microbial true protein is digested and absorbed in host's small intestine?
80%
86
What happens if an essential amino acid is missing from the escape proteins in the ruminant diet?
The others aren't stored and are simply deaminated or broken down until the missing one is eaten
87
What percentage escape proteins are there in casein, barley, soybean meal, corn, brewer's grains and fish meal?
10,20,30,40,50,60
88
How does increasing quantity of escape proteins affect wool growth, body growth and milk production?
Increases
89
What are the essential amino acids for ruminants?
Methionine, lysine, valine, isoleucine, leucine, histidine, threonine, phenylalanine, tryptophan and arginine
90
Why are lysine and methionine particularly important for ruminants?
Levels usually low in plants and lack is rate-limiting for growth and milk production
91
How does feeding escape proteins allow non-protein nitrogen to be included in the diet without risking ammonia toxicity?
Not degraded by ruminal microbes so aren't a source of ammonia
92
Which cheap nitrogen sources in the ruminant diet can result in ammonia toxicity?
Highly degradable protein with little escape protein eg casein, large amounts of non-protein nitrogen eg urea, ammonia itself eg ammoniated molasses
93
Why does excess ammonia cause neurological signs?
Readily crosses blood-brain barrier and brain has no cycle to detoxify it
94
Why does urea cause blood alkalosis?
Binds H+ ions
95
How does alkalosis cause tetany?
Increased calcium binding to plasma proteins so reducing plasma ionised calcium
96
What is the most abundant constituent of all mammalian milks?
Water
97
Which lipids do ruminant milks contain?
Triacylglycerol, diglyceride, cholesterol, free fatty acids, phospholipids, monoglycerides
98
How does the lipid content of non-ruminant milk compare to ruminants?
Increased sterols and sterol esters, reduced triacylglycerols
99
How many carbons do most fatty acids in ruminant milk have?
16-18
100
How many carbons in the fatty acids of herbivores are more common than other animals?
4-14
101
At least how many different fatty acids are there in cow's milk?
437
102
What is the major protein constituent of milk?
Caseins
103
What pH range does casein have low solubility at?
4-5
104
What are the amino acid components of casein?
Serine-bound phosphate, high proline content, few or no cysteines,
105
How are caseins present as an important source of minerals in the milk?
Micellar complexes with calcium and inorganic phosphates?
106
Why is low cysteine in casein not a problem?
Can be synthesised from methionine, high concentration in whey proteins
107
What are non-casein proteins in milk called?
Wheys
108
Which kinds of species have many whey proteins and which have few?
Carnivores many, rodents few
109
In cows which whey proteins are present?
Beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactalbumin, protease-peptones, traces of serum albumin and immumoglobulins
110
What is the predominant carbohydrate in most milks?
Lactose
111
Which monosaccharides make up lactose?
Glucose and galactose
112
Which salts are found in milk?
Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, chloride, citrate
113
Which is the only hormone rabbits need to maintain milk production?
Prolactin
114
Which hormones do cows sheep and goats need to maintain milk production?
Prolactin, growth hormone, thyroxine, parathyroid hormone, corticosteroids and oxytocin
115
When do lipid synthesis and lactose synthesis for milk commence?
Lipid synthesis before lactation, lactose synthesis at parturition
116
Where are fatty acids for milk extracted/produced?
Either extracted from blood or made from acetate and malonyl CoA
117
What can be the primer molecule in milk fatty acid production instead of acetyl CoA in cows?
Butyryl CoA or propionate
118
What % of nitrogenous compounds in milk are synthesised de novo in the mammary gland from amino acids in the blood?
92%
119
How is there net conversion of essential to non-essential amino acids in secretory cells for milk protein synthesis?
Mammary gland selectively takes up too many essential amino acids and too few non-essential
120
What is the mammary gland the only source of?
Lactose
121
What is the pathway of lactose production in the mammary gland?
Glucose to UDP-galactose in the cytoplasm and then UDP-galactose and glucose to lactose in the golgi by lactose synthetase
122
What proportion of the total substrates taken up by the bovine mammary gland is glucose?
400g/kg
123
What is glucose used to make in the bovine mammary gland?
Lactose and glycerol
124
What % of total body glucose usage does the mammary gland account for at peak lactation?
85%
125
What are the consequences of glucose shortage during lactation?
Body fat mobilisation to supply glycerol for gluconeogenesis and also fatty acids which can't be used to make glucose
126
What happens to the fatty acids mobilised during glucose shortage during lactation?
Diverted to liver, either stored or converted to ketone bodies
127
What are the problems with fatty acid storage or conversion to ketone bodies during glucose shortage during lactation?
Fatty liver syndrome, ketoacidosis
128
What are the signs of ketosis?
Depression, loss of appetite, fall in milk yield, neurological signs and death
129
Why can ketosis result in death?
Ruminant brain poorly adapted to using them for energy
130
How is pregnancy toxaemia in ewes different to ketosis in cows?
Occurs in late pregnancy when ewe is under greatest energy and glucose demand but food supply is least (late winter)
131
What is the equine equivalent of pregnancy toxaemia and ketosis and how is it different?
Hyperlipidaemia - last third of pregnancy or lactation, don't become ketotic but have elevated blood triglycerides
132
Why kind of pony is hyperlipidaemia most frequent in?
Shetland
133
What is the feline equivalent of equine hyperlipidaemia?
Hyperlipaemia
134
Which ketone body is not a ketone?
Hydroxybutyrate
135
How do ketone bodies have an advantage over long chain fatty acids as a fuel?
Don't need albumin for transport, easily cross membranes, can be carried in higher concentrations in blood and interstitium
136
Which vital muscles can use ketone bodies during starvation?
Heart, diaphragm, gut and myometrium
137
Which dietary deficiency causes dam or kitten coat to change from black to brown?
Tyrosine or phenylalanine
138
Do foods for older dogs have higher or lower energy content?
Reduced
139
Why do large breed dogs fed fish and rice often lose weight?
Low dietary fat
140
Which animals need and don't need vitamin C?
Dogs and cats don't, guinea pigs, bats, birds and fish do
141
What is the intermediate between glucose and L-ascorbate?
Glucuronate
142
What are some functions of vitamin C?
Collagen synthesis, bile acid formation, enhances absorption of iron from gut, antioxidant
143
How does hepatic rate of vitamin C synthesis in dogs and cats compare to other animals?
Half
144
Why might you supplement vitamin C in very stressed dogs?
Vitamin C concentration decreases in stress
145
Where do cats obtain glucose?
Gluconeogenesis from protein
146
What is the % protein requirements of dogs and cats?
Cats 20-30% and dogs 18%
147
How does the activity of hepatic nitrogen catabolising enzymes in cats compare to the activity in dogs?
Increased activity
148
Why do cats go into negative nitrogen balance during insufficient protein intake? What is a consequence?
Can't down-regulate enzymes, will break down body protein
149
Why have cats lost the ability to down-regulate enzymes?
Lack of selection pressure, diet always contains lots of protein
150
Which nitrogen catabolising enzyme activity is increased in cats compared to dogs and rats?
Alanine aminotransferase and glutamate dehydrogenase
151
Which amino acid can be used an a precursor in cats during an alternative hepatic gluconeogenic pathway?
Serine
152
Which amino acid requirement is higher in cats than man or dogs?
Arginine
153
How long can rats survive in nitrogen balance without arginine?
A short period
154
What is the pathway if arginine in the urea cycle?
Arginie to citrulline to ornithine to arginosuccinic acid to arginine
155
Why do cats fed arginine-free diets show signs of increased blood ammonia?
Depletion of urea cycle intermediates - can break down protein but not excrete urea
156
Why two enzymes involved in ornithine synthesis in cats have low activity?
Pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthase and ornithine aminotransferase
157
What are some possible reasons for increase cysteine and methionine requirement in cats?
Sulphur-containing amino acid called felinine excreted in urine, may be a sink for cholesterol (proved wrong) so maybe needed to make keratin for fur
158
What % amino acids absorbed by cats are used to make fur?
30%
159
Which amino acid is taurine made from?
Cysteine
160
What can taurine deficiency cause?
Poor reproductive performance, poor growth, dilated cardiomyopathy, retinal degeneration
161
How much taurine is needed to prevent retinal degeneration in cats?
500mg/kg taurine
162
How much taurine is needed to prevent dilated cardiomyopathy in cats?
1000-1500mg/kg in dried food and 2200-2500mg/kg in canned food
163
Why do cats have high taurine requirement?
Reduced ability to synthesise it from cysteine, conjugation of bile acids solely with taurine
164
Why do cats have reduced ability to synthesise taurine?
Low activity of cysteine dioxygenase and cysteinesulphinate decarboxylase
165
Which amino acids do cats, humans, rabbits and rats use to conjugate bile acids?
Cats taurine, humans taurine and glycine, rabbits glycine, rats taurine but can switch to glyco-conjugation if it's limiting
166
Why is there a constant drain on taurine in cats?
Conjugation and bile acids and subsequent loss from intestines, any excess excreted in urine
167
Why are there different taurine requirements in dry and canned food?
Canned diets have higher fibre so more bacteria growth which split taurine from bile acids, also higher fat content stimulates bile secretion
168
What are the functions of taurine?
Regulates calcium flux across membranes, osmoregulation, neuromodulation
169
How does cow's milk compare to meat or cats milk as a taurine source?
300x less
170
Why shouldn't cats drink milk?
Undigested lactose causes osmotic diarrhoea
171
Why dietary requirement do cats share with mosquitos and turbot fish?
Need arachidonic acid
172
What are the functions of essential fatty acids?
Prostaglandin and leukotriene synthesis, maintenance of skin and coat condition and membrane function
173
What are signs of essential fatty acid deficiency in cats?
Hair loss, poor wound healing, anaemia and reduced fertility
174
Why is linoleic acid an essential fatty acid?
Mammals can't add another double bond on the methyl side of oleic acid
175
How is linoleic acid converted to arachidonic acid in dogs and man?
Linoleic acid to alpha-linoleic acid to dihomo-alpha-linoleic acid to arachidonic acid
176
How are retinol and retinal formed?
Retinol preformed in foods of animal origin or in bacteria, retinal made from beta-carotenes in intestinal mucosa
177
What is beta-carotene with respect to retinal?
Two molecules of retinal joined at aldehyde end
178
Why enzyme can dogs and man use to convert beta-carotene to retinaldehyde?
Beta-carotene-dioxygenase
179
Why do cats need preformed vitamin A, not just beta-carotene?
Don't have beta-carotene dioxygenase
180
What is vitamin A used for?
To make visual pigment, rhodopsin, for skin and bone development, immunity and reproduction
181
What is a cause and problem of vitamin A toxicity in cats?
Too much liver or cod liver oil causes hypervitaminosis A causing cartilage calcification between neck vertebrae
182
What is nicotinic acid important for?
Metabolic pathways for hydrogen transfer ie NAD and NADP.
183
In man and dogs, what is nicotinic acid formed from?
Tryptophan
184
In man and dogs, what % of tryotophan in converted to nicotinic acid?
1%
185
How does the nicotinic acid requirement of cats compare the that of dogs? Why?
4 x higher in cats because they have high activity of picolinic carboxylase so lots of glutamate and no nicotinic acid to protect against toxic effects of high tryptophan
186
What does deficiency of nicotinic acid cause?
Pellagra - severe mucosal and intestinal ulceration causing dehydration and death
187
What are some signs that cats are less able to cope with high carbohydrates?
Glucokinase activity low in feline liver, pancreatic amylase has 3x less activity than dogs, intestinal amylase stimulated less by dietary starch, cats fed high protein can maintain blood glucose level better when starved than if they'd been fed high carbs
188
What are signs of cobalt deficiency?
Progressive loss of appetite, weight and production, anaemia, weakness and pica - can't make B vitamins
189
What are signs of copper deficiency?
Poor coat, loss of condition, reproductive problems
190
What are signs of iodine deficiency?
Weakness in new-borns, stillbirths
191
What are signs of manganese deficiency?
Infertility, poor growth, poor hair coat
192
What are signs of zinc deficiency?
Parakeratosis, alopecia, poor condition
193
What are signs of selenium deficiency?
Muscular dystrophy (white muscle disease)
194
Where is vitamin A stored?
The liver
195
What are two precursors of retinol found in plant matter?
Carotenoids, xanthophylls
196
What destroys vitamin A and what encourages this?
Oxidation - light, moisture and air
197
What is vitamin A used for and what can deficiency cause?
Vision (rhodopsin) and epithelial integrity, deficiency causes night blindness and rough scaly skin
198
Excess of which vitamins is toxic?
D and A
199
What are three forms of vitamin D?
Ergocalciferol, cholecalciferol, calcitriol
200
What is the main form of vitamin E?
Alpha-tocopherol
201
Why is a regular supply of vitamin E required?
Not stored in the body
202
What % vitamin E is lost during haymaking?
90%
203
What can vitamin E or selenium deficiency cause?
Nutritional myopathy - white muscle disease in calves, stiff lamb disease, cardiac myopathy (mulberry heart disease) in pigs
204
Why is vitamin K deficiency rare?
Found in most green foods
205
What does menadione form?
Prothrombin
206
What is sweet clover disease?
Dicoumarol is anti-vitamin K, causes petechiation, haemorrhage, anaemia
207
What can vitamin B deficiency cause?
Poor growth and nerve problems
208
Why are primary vitamin B deficiencies not seen?
All members of the complex are formed by rumen and colon microbes
209
Where is thiaminase gained/produced?
Can be present in diet or produced by rumen bacteria during acidosis
210
What is a result of thiaminase deficiency?
Cerebrocortical necrosis in lambs
211
What does cobalt deficiency cause?
Vitamin B12 requires cyancobalamin and intrinsic factor from stomach pylorus so deficiency causes pernicious anaemia
212
What does milk fever cause?
Muscle hyoerexcitability then paralysis of all muscle types
213
What can cause hypocalcaemia?
Calcium depletion or excess plasma protein binding in alkalosis
214
What causes hypercalcaemia and what can it result in?
Excess PTH causes metastatic calcification
215
What can cytochrome oxidase deficiency interfere with?
Pigmentation of hair, fur and wool
216
What is "swayback"?
Poor myelination in lambs
217
What is goitre?
Neck swelling as thyroid gland increases in volume
218
How does goitrin affect thyroxine production?
Interferes with iodination of tyrosine
219
What are some poisonous plants?
Yew (taxol inhibits microtubules), ragwort (alkaloid causes cirrhosis of the liver), buttercup (causes buccal ulcers)
220
What does zinc deficiency cause?
Parakeratosis (abnormal scaly skin) in pigs
221
What is a "teart pasture"?
High molybdenum which in the presence of sulphur forms thiomolybdenate which chelates copper and reduces its absorption
222
What parts of the world are sodium-deficient pastures common in?
Africa, Australia
223
What does selenium deficiency cause?
Myopathy
224
How can potassium deficiency occur?
Diuretics (iatrogenically)
225
What can potassium deficiency cause? Excess?
Deficiency = hyperpolarisation of excitable cells, excess = hyperpolarises, affects heart
226
What can excess alfalfa cause?
Too much potassium causes hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis on mutated sodium channels
227
How is hypomagnaesic tetany different to calcium deficiency?
Doesn't progress to flacidity
228
When does acute lack of magnesium occur?
Following turnout onto succulent pastures
229
When does chronic lack of magnesium occur?
Following acute stress imposed on low intake
230
Which mineral do high N/K fertilisers interfere with the uptake of?
Calcium
231
What is an advantage of growing lucerne, alfalfa and clover?
Legumes, fix nitrogen, don't require NO3- fertiliser
232
Which kind of grass accumulates tryptophan?
Rapidly growing grass after it's been cut
233
What is a problem with legumes?
Foam stabilisers prevent eructation and result in accumulation of rumen gases - bloat, pressure on diaphragm, can't breathe
234
What problem does gossypol from cottonseed cause?
Causes damage to red cells in heart
235
What is "tedding"?
Cutting grass into small pieces so it dries faster
236
What bacteria can mouldy hay contain?
Actinomycetes (farmers lungs), aspergillus (mycotic abortion), listeria (listeriosis - abscesses and abortion)
237
Why can concentrates cause bloat?
Excessive fermentable carbohydrates
238
What is the ideal Ca:P ratio?
2:1
239
Which vitamin are fat soluble and which are water soluble?
Fat - ADEK, water - BC
240
What causes goose-stepping in pigs?
Pantothenic acid deficiency
241
What causes curly toe deficiency in poultry?
Riboflavin, B2 deficiency
242
What is thiamine B1 a cofactor for?
Pyruvate dehydrogenase
243
What are menadione and phylloquinone needed for?
Prothrombin synthesis
244
What species does dicoumarol in clover particularly affect?
Cattle
245
What % gross energy is lost as rumen gases?
8%
246
What is skimmed milk denatured with?
Oil
247
Which animals are fed reconstituted skimmed milk?
Pigs and calves
248
Why should animals be weaned off artificial milk replacer ASAP?
Reduces diarrhoea and cost of feeding
249
What are milk pellets and which species are they fed to?
Dried skimmed milk, for pigs weaned young
250
What is the normal DM content of dried grass?
15-35%
251
Why is fresh grass of limited value for dairy cows in the winter?
Low protein and digestibility
252
What is DM of silage if you can squeeze water from it, if you can squeeze water with force, if you can only just squeeze water out, if you can't squeeze water out?
20%, 20-25%, 25-30%, 30-40%
253
What is the usual DM content of haylage?
50%
254
What horses in particular should be given haylage?
Respiratory problems - "broken wind"
255
What colour straw is best?
Shiny dark gold
256
What stock can you feed grass feed to?
All
257
Why is grass meal only used in limited circumstances?
Expensive, some vitamins lost
258
What is the major nutrient for which soya bean meal is purchased?
Protein
259
What is the oil content of soya bean meal?
1%
260
Why do you toast soya bean meal?
To inactivate trypsin inhibitor
261
What are the major anti-nutritive or toxic factors in soya bean meal?
Contains anticoagulant, cysteine and methionine are sub-optimal, contains allergic goitrogenic
262
What is the main nutrient provided by fish meal?
Protein - lysine methionine tryptophan
263
What livestock would you feed fish meal to?
Young simple stomached animals
264
What colour is good quality fish meal and why?
Light brown because if it is dark brown then it's been overheated and there's too much acid-detergent insoluble nitrogen
265
What does micronised mean?
Microwaved and rolled
266
Where are rumen-protected lysine and methionine released?
Abomasum
267
How do you feed rumen-protected lysine and methionine?
In concentrates, not silage because it would be degraded in rumen
268
What are limiting amino acids in cats, cattle, poultry and pigs?
Taurine in cats, methionine in cattle for horn, methionine in poultry for feathers, lysine in pigs for muscle growth
269
What amino acids are present in high or low concentrations in beans and peas?
High in lysine, low in cysteine and methionine
270
How are beans and peas processed before feeding to dairy cows?
Cracked, kibbled, coarsely ground
271
How are beans and peas fed to horses?
Micronised
272
Which grains have the highest and lowest energy content?
Highest is maize, lowest is oats
273
Which species are fed oats and how are they prepared?
Horses and ruminants, fed bruised or crushed
274
What are the disadvantages of using maize in livestock rations?
Poor quality protein, low in tryptophan, lysine or methionine
275
How are potatoes fed to crops?
Cooked for pigs and poultry, raw for cattle
276
What is protein degradability of by-products?
Variable depending on heating, usually between that of fishmeal (40%) and silage (85%)
277
How do you store wet brewers grains?
Ensiled
278
What stock is sugar beet pulp fed to?
Not pigs or poultry, good for sheep and dairy cows
279
What is fibre content of sugar beet pulp like?
High fibre like grass and silage
280
How should sugar beet pulp be fed to horses?
Soaked because it swells up
281
What does proximate analysis measure?
Moisture, ash, crude protein, ether extract, crude fibre, nitrogen-free extract, dry matter, gross energy, carbohydrate
282
What is the biological value (BV)?
Proportion of food protein used to synthesize body tissue and compounds
283
What is neutral detergent fibre?
Residue after extraction with boiling neutral solutions of EDTA and sodium lauryl sulphate
284
What is modified acid detergent fibre?
Residue after extraction with acids
285
How do you work out crude protein from nitrogen content?
Multiply by 6.25
286
What proportion of a protein's mass comes from nitrogen?
1/6
287
Which reaction is used to measure nitrogen?
Biuret
288
Why is the crude fibre measurement not useful for a herbivore diet?
They can get nutrients from it
289
What is another term for carbohydrates?
Nitrogen free extractive
290
What % metabolisable energy is lost in urine in monogastrics?
4-8%
291
What % metabolisable energy is lost in urine and methane in ruminants?
8 and 12%
292
How many years ago were dogs domesticated?
40,000
293
When is puberty in a dog?
6-10/12 months
294
How long is anoestrus in dogs?
3 months
295
How long is metoestrus in dogs?
2 months
296
How long is pro-oestrus in dogs?
1-2 weeks
297
How long is oestrus in dogs?
9 days
298
When is the neonatal period in dogs?
0-14 days
299
When is the transitional period in dogs?
14-21 days
300
When is the socialisation period in dogs?
3-10 weeks
301
When is the "juvenile" period in dogs?
10 weeks to 6 months
302
When is the socialisation period in cats?
2-7 weeks
303
What is a forage feedstuff?
Grass and conservation products
304
What is a total mixed ration?
Grass and conservation products plus concentrates
305
What moisture content does hay go from and to?
65-85% to 15%
306
What % water and dry matter should silage be?
70% water, 30% dry matter
307
What length is grass for silage cut to?
2-4cm
308
What does silage analysis include?
pH, dry matter, protein, fibre, digestible organic matter, energy, residual sugars
309
How much of the total nitrogen should be true protein?
Above 75%
310
What is a good indicator of secondary fermentation?
Ammonia
311
What is a problem with too much fibre in ruminants?
Reduces appetite
312
How can you measure fibre?
Neutral detergent fibre, acid detergent fibre and modified acid detergent fibre
313
What is the ideal digestible organic matter value?
450-800g per kg dry matter
314
What is a usual energy value per kg dry matter for ruminants?
10-12 MJ
315
What proportion of the metabolisable energy should be fermentable in ruminants?
Greater than 70%
316
What are some examples of volatile fatty acids?
Acetic, propionic, butyric
317
What % of fermentation acids should be volatile fatty acids?
Less than 20%
318
What are residual soluble carbohydrates used for?
Energy for rumen microflora
319
What may reduce residual sugar levels in feed?
Wilted crops or adding acid when ensiling
320
What is a normal value for residual soluble carbohydrates per kg dry matter?
Greater than 100g
321
Which fat-soluble vitamins can be stored?
ADEK (all of them)
322
Which is the only water soluble vitamin that can be stored?
B12
323
How do ruminants and horses meet B vitamin requirements?
Microbial synthesis
324
Where is vitamin A found?
Liver, egg yolk, milk fat
325
Is vitamin A present in vegetable material?
No but carotenoid precursors are
326
Which part of the plant are carotenoids found in?
Green parts
327
Which is the only vegetable concentrate to contain carotenoids?
Yellow maize
328
What time of year is vitamin A deficiency common?
End of winter
329
Which species can't form vitamin A from beta carotene so needs preformed vitamin A?
Cats
330
What disease do cats get if they eat too much liver?
Cervical spondylitis
331
In which conditions is vitamin A unstable?
Heat, light, water, metals
332
What % vitamin A per month is lost in food stored properly?
10%
333
What is vitamin D2 called?
Ergocalciferol
334
What is vitamin D3 called?
Cholecalciferol
335
Which animal tissues contain vitamin D?
Fish liver oils, eggs and colostrum
336
What is vitamin D formed from under UV light?
Dihydrocholesterol
337
Which species can't produce vitamin D?
Dogs
338
Which species needs vitamin D3?
Poultry, some primates
339
What does excess vitamin D cause? What about deficiency?
Metastatic calcification, rickets
340
Which vitamin E compound is the most active?
Alpha tocopherol
341
Under what concentrate storage conditions is vitamin E lost?
Wet
342
Where is vitamin E deficiency often seen?
Calves on whole milk
343
Which foods is vitamin K found in?
Green foods, egg yolk and fish meal
344
What is vitamin K available synthetically as?
Menadione
345
Which feedstuff does not contain B1 thiamin?
White flour
346
What might B1 deficiencies be caused by?
Plants or bacteria producing thiaminase
347
What conditions is B1 deficiency seen in?
Bracken poisoning, cerebrocortical necrosis, Chastek's paralysis
348
Where is B2 riboflavin found?
Yeast, liver, milk esp whey and green leafy crops
349
Why is B2 deficiency not seen in adult ruminants?
Made in the rumen
350
What does B2 deficiency cause in chicks?
Clubbed down and curly toes paralysis
351
In which foodstuff in nicotinamide found in bound form?
Cereals
352
What can the body synthesise nicotinamide from?
Tryptophan
353
What disease does nicotinamide deficiency cause in poultry?
Chondridystrophy
354
Why is more B6 pyridoxine needed in high protein diets?
Has role in protein metabolism
355
For which species is there not enough pantothenic acid in cereals?
Pigs, poultry, cats or dogs
356
What does pantothenic acid deficiency cause in pigs?
Goose stepping
357
What does pantothenic acid deficiency cause in dogs?
Premature greying
358
What can folic acid deficiency cause?
Anaemia or neural tube defects
359
Which feeds are poor in biotin?
Wheat and barley
360
What does biotin deficiency cause in poultry?
Fatty liver and kidney syndrome
361
What does biotin deficiency cause in pigs and horses?
Foot lesions
362
Where is B12 cyanocobalamin found?
Foods of animal origin
363
What do B12 deficiencies in poultry cause?
Poor egg hatchability, poor growth, skin and feathering
364
What is needed to synthesise choline in a deficit?
Folic acid, B12 and methionine
365
Other than acetylcholine, what is choline needed for?
Methyl group transfer as betaine
366
What does choline deficiency cause in poultry?
Chondrodystrophy
367
What are some trace minerals?
Iron, iodine, copper, manganese, zinc, cobalt, selenium, molybdenum and chromin
368
Which feedstuffs have low calcium levels?
Cereals grains and meat
369
What % of phosphorus is found in bones and teeth?
80
370
Why do oilseeds and cereal grains have poor phosphate availability to ruminants?
Bound as phylates
371
What does phosphorus deficiency cause?
PICA, poor growth, reproduction, milk yield, stiff joints and muscle weakness
372
Why does phosphorus deficiency cause rickets in young birds?
Phytate binding
373
What does excess phosphorus cause in horses?
Bran disease - "big head"
374
What is Ca:P ratio in laying hens?
6:1 or greater
375
What % of magnesium is in skeleton?
70%
376
Are magnesium levels high or low in milk?
Low
377
What does magnesium deficiency cause in cows fed on whole milk?
Tetany
378
What is "grass staggers"
Lush spring grass - low Mg, high Na and K
379
What can excess magnesium cause in poultry?
Constipation
380
How can potassium be lost from the body?
Vomiting, chronic kidney failure
381
What can excess potassium interfere with?
Mg absorption
382
What can molasses high in potassium cause in poultry?
Loose droppings
383
What can dietary SO4 be used for?
Cartilage
384
What does NaCl deficiency cause in poultry?
Poor performance, cannibalism, egg eating
385
What can improve palatability in ruminant diets?
Salt
386
What % of iron is complexed in protein?
90%
387
Is milk a good or bad source of iron and copper?
Bad
388
If mothers are iron-deficient, where do puppies get their iron from?
Stores in liver
389
What lowers Fe absorption in laying hens?
High Ca
390
How available is cereal Fe to poultry?
Not very
391
What causes veal to be pale?
Low Fe
392
What can copper deficiency cause?
Poor fertility in cattle and sheep, diarrhoea, loss of hair pigmentation and wool crimp, anaemia, and "swayback" in lambs (poor myelination if spinal cord)
393
Why does a teart pasture cause copper deficiency?
Forms complex in gut
394
What is used as a growth promoter in pigs?
Copper
395
Why might sheep get copper poisoning from a concentrate diet?
Orchid sprays may contaminate
396
Which dog breed is susceptible to copper poisoning?
Bedlington terrier
397
What happens during copper poisoning?
Accumulates in liver, causes haemolytic crisis, increased liver enzymes give early warning
398
Which type of stomachs need preformed B12?
Monogastrics
399
What is cobalt deficiency called and what are some symptoms?
Listlessness, unthriftyness, lack of oestrus in ewes, poor conception in cattle
400
What can B12 deficiency take a long time to develop?
Body stores it
401
Why is B12 deficiency treated with an injection in ruminants?
Not well absorbed through ruminant gut
402
What can iodine deficiency cause?
Weak, deformed young, anoestrus, retained placenta or abortion
403
How do you prevent goitregenic foods causing a problem?
Provide extra iodine
404
In which feedstuffs is manganese levels low?
Maize, animal proteins, some pastures
405
What can manganese deficiency cause?
Infertility in dairy cows, calves with knuckled joints, poor hatchability and deformities in poultry
406
What disease can poultry get from a high-maize diet?
Chondrodystrophy
407
What can zinc deficiency cause?
Poor spermatogenesis and infertility in males
408
What's the relationship between molybdenum and copper?
Low molybdenum levels cause copper toxicity, high molybdenum levels cause copper deficiency
409
What is selenium needed for?
To produce glutathione and glutathione peroxidase and other selenoproteins
410
Is selenium deficiency in pastures common?
Yes
411
What does selenium deficiency cause?
Myopathy in 6-18 month cattle at turn out and retained placenta
412
What does excess selenium cause?
Blind staggers, alkali disease
413
What fluorine levels will cause toxicity?
20ppm
414
What are some non-cellulosic feeds?
Good clover, grains, molasses, beet, turnips
415
How does the NDF content affect the acetate:propionate ratio and how does this affect milk fat content?
The lower the NDF, the lower the ratio and the greater the likelihood of reduced milk fat content
416
What can overfeeding of non-cellulosic feeds cause?
Acidosis and rumen stasis ("feedlot bloat")
417
Why are non-cellulosic feeds essential for high milk fat content?
Spare breakdown of amino acids for energy in the liver during early lactation so they can be used for milk protein synthesis
418
What effect do non-cellulosic feeds have on the diet of a dairy cow?
Boost total feed intake, increase energy, increase protein, rectify specific nutrient deficiencies
419
What effects do cellulosic feeds have on the diet of a dairy cow?
Stimulation rumination and saliva production, produce acetic acid, buffer rumen acidity, reduce feed intake and weight gain, encourage weight loss, reduce feed costs
420
What are cereal grains?
Concentrated feeds where the main component is starch
421
What % dry matter are cereal grains?
86-90%
422
If dry matter is low in cereal grains, how must you store it?
Wet, preserved with propionic acid or caustic soda but this causes vitamin E destruction
423
Which part of the grain has proteins and lipids?
Embryo/germ
424
What are the layers in grain?
Starch endosperm surrounded by husk, oats and barley have an additional outer hull with an inner and outer pale
425
What are the main oils in cereals?
Unsaturated - linoleic and oleic
426
Which vitamins do cereals contain
No A or D, some beta carotene in yellow maize. Some vitamin E unless wet storage. B vitamins good except B12, B2 and biotin. Niacin present but bound in monogastrics.
427
What is the principal cereal for horses?
Oats with some barley and fluked maize
428
What is the principal cereal for pigs and ruminants?
Barley
429
What is the principal cereal for poultry? What about the USA?
Wheat, maize
430
What is the problem with wheat containing high gluten?
Dough formation/digestion disturbance in pigs and horses
431
What's a problem with feeding wheat as a meal/mash to poultry?
Beaks become sticky
432
What % wheat meal is added to pelleted compound feeds so the gluten can bind it together?
15%
433
What are some hot and cold processes for cereals?
Steam flaking, micronisation are hot and grinding, rolling are cold
434
Why might propionic acid be added to high moisture grains?
Mould inhibitor
435
Why is some cereal processing necessary for cattle?
Whole grains can get into abomasum so any grains not cracked when eaten won't be ruminated
436
Which part of the grain does cereal processing damage?
Seed coat
437
Why is slow starch release a good thing in ruminants?
Protects rumen from low pH
438
For how long after NaOH treatment should you not use whole grain?
7 days
439
What is the nutritional value of oat hulls?
None - fibrous filler
440
What is brewers/distillers grain?
Insoluble residue after starch to maltose
441
What is wheat bran?
Husk and adherent endosperm
442
What is middlings?
More endosperm, less husk
443
What is wheatfeed?
Bran + middlings
444
What % flour and wheatfeed is wheat?
72% flour, 28% bran and middlings
445
What is the main energy source in roots?
Sucrose
446
What are turnips high in?
Non-protein nitrogen
447
Why is sugar beet not usually used?
Poor Ca:P ratio
448
What is the % DM in molasses?
70-75%
449
Why are molasses not used in poultry?
High in potassium, causes wet litter
450
What causes gastroenteritis in potatoes?
Alkaloid solanine
451
What may cause problems in manioc?
Cyanogenetic glucosides
452
How much more protein do peas and bean have than cereal?
2.5%
453
How long must peas and beans be stored for? Why?
3 months, may cause digestive disturbances
454
Why does oilseed processing involve heat?
Inactivates trypsin inhibitors
455
What are oilseeds low in?
Calcium, vitamin E
456
Up to what % protein concentrates are used in monogastrics to make up amino acid deficiencies?
10
457
What may go rancid in fish meal?
Unsaturated fats
458
What are the only ruminants where fish meal is used?
Young or high yield dairy cows
459
What is there high risk of in meat and bone meal?
Salmonella
460
What is the maximum % of meat and bone meal which should be used?
2.5-5%
461
What are milk products deficient in?
Fe, Mg, vitamins D and E
462
Why can't poultry digest lactose?
Fermented in caeca
463
Which species can have sour milk and how can you preserve it?
Pigs, formalin
464
Does barley or whey have better residual protein quality?
Whey
465
What is whey pimento rich in?
Lactose and minerals
466
What's the rumen and reticulum volume?
130 litres
467
How much water does a dairy cow need per day?
60-100 litres
468
Do cows eat more when particle size is larger or smaller?
Smaller
469
At what dry matter content is cattle moisture intake highest?
45-55%
470
When is the only time camelids need concentrate feed?
Pregnancy and lactation
