O

Question 1

describe self-directed teams

Answer 1

• Group of empowered individuals working together to reach a common goal
• May be organized for long-term or short-term objectives

Effective because

• Provide employee empowerment
• Ensure core job characteristics
• Meet individual psychological needs

Question 2

self directed teams: how to maximize effectiveness

Answer 2

Ensure those who have legitimate contributions are on the team

Provide management support

Ensure the necessary training

Endorse clear objectives and goals

Financial and non-financial rewards

Supervisors must release control

Question 3

Benefits of teams and expanded job designs

Answer 3

Improved quality of work life
Improved job satisfaction
Increased motivation
Allows employees to accept more responsibility
Improved productivity and quality
Reduced turnover and absenteeism

Question 4

discuss construct validity as it relates to an O topic. Discuss implications for measurement and model building.

Answer 4

MTMM is often used to establish construct validity in org research in order to take into account sources of error variance. MTTM helps to validate measures and evaluate how error affects the measurement of a construct. Some error in measurement can be attributed to method variance, and some to random error, which MTMM helps disentangle. However, here is no clear, agreed upon procedure for analyzing and interpreting MTMM matrices. Thus, the same data may produce different conclusions. Each method is built on different assumptions and is appropriate in different situations. This poses a problem in applying this method in organizational research. The magnitudes of the differences between correlations is not addressed in MTMM, and the amount of variance in measurement due to method is considered to be constant across the data; this is an important discrepancy because the magnitude of the differences between correlations provides information about the degree of discriminant validity that is present. Finally, there is no way to partial out the variation in measures due to different sources (traits, methods, random error). Thus, this procedure may be limited in its utility because of Type I and Type II errors that have the potential to result from its application.
Another common method is to use key informants. Key informants provide org researchers with information on organizational structure, environment, social climate. However, this method has been criticized due to the potential for measurement error in key informant reports. The process of serving as a key informant can be complex and relies heavily on individual judgment. Although an informant may attempt to provide objective information, their inferences about the organizational environment will be construed through their personal experiences. Thus, this task is anything but objective; measurement error related to this subjectivity is a major problem. There is little evidence offered on the validity of this method.
What is the answer to this issue, then? CFA is one way to ameliorate the issues associated with various methods of establishing construct validity in organizational research. There are fewer assumptions associated with CFA and there is more information provided about reliability and validity than the other methods. Variance is partitioned out and an overall degree of fit is provided. Inferences made are based on statistical criteria, such as the chi square test, rather than rules of thumb or qualitative inferences.

Question 5

importance of employee attitudes

Answer 5

employees who are satisfied and committed more likely to attend work, stay with organization, engage in OCBs and ethical behaviors; less likely to engage in CWBs

Question 6

relationship between job sat and performance

Answer 6

The relationship between job sat (JS) and performance is not consistent across jobs or people

Complex jobs = relationship is stronger between JS and performance

The relationships between JS and comm, attendance, performance, turnover are not as strong as you would expect, but this is probably due to the fact that there are so many other factors that affect work behaviors (e.g., you want to miss work but can’t cause you need money, want to leave the job but can’t cause of the job market)

Thus, job sat and commitment is related more to the desire to turnover or miss work that they are to actual behaviors

Question 7

What causes employees to be satisfied with and committed to their jobs?

Answer 7

These attitudes are multifaceted;
A person may be satisfied with some aspects of their job but not others

individual differences, core self-evaluations, culture, intelligence, satisfaction with other aspects of life, meeting employees expectations about the job, person-org fit and person job fit, nature of tasks, rewards, chance for growth and challenge

Question 8

describe the construct of commitment

Answer 8

Three motivational facets to commitment
Affective: extent to which an employee wants to remain with an org
Continuance: extent to which an employee believes she must remain with the org due to time, expense, effort already put in/difficulty in finding another job
Normative: extent to which an employee feels obligated to the org and must remain with them (an org has invested a lot in them so they feel ethically obligated to remain)

Question 9

individual differences that affect job satisfaction

Answer 9

Individual difference theory:
some variability in job sat is due to an individual’s personal tendency across situations to enjoy what she does
Certain people will be generally satisfied and motivated regardless of the type of job they hold
Research supports the notion that job sat is consistent across time and situations within people

Question 10

Core self-evaluations & job satisfaction

Answer 10

Four personality variables are especially likely to be related to people’s predisposition for job sat (Judge, Locke, Durham, 1997)
Emotional stability
Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Internal locus of control
Meta analyses (Judge & Bono, 2001) found these four variables related to job sat and performance

Question 11

Intelligence relationship to job satisfaction

Answer 11

Research suggests that smarter people have slightly lower job satisfaction levels for non-complex jobs
In complex jobs, the relationship between intelligence and job sat is negligible
Intelligence and turnover not related

Question 12

How can an org influence job satisfaction?

Answer 12

An employee’s needs can be met in a variety of nonword actives such as hobbies and volunteer work
An org should work toward fulfilling the needs that it can control

Question 13

Employee expectations about the job & job satisfaction

Answer 13

Discrepancy between employee needs, values, and expectations vs. reality of the job = more dissatisfaction and less motivation

It’s important that applicants have realistic job expectations
When psychological contract is breached, job sat and org commitment go down and intentions to turnover increase

Question 14

role of tasks and co workers in job satisfaction

Answer 14

Nature of work itself is a very important factor in job sat

People who enjoy who they work with have higher job sat

Question 15

measuring job sat & commitment

Answer 15

most orgs use their own custom designed inventories, but commonly used ones include Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) for JS
and for JC, Allen & Meyer (1990) is most commonly used

Question 16

consequences of dissatisfaction and other negative work attitudes

Answer 16

absenteeism, turnover, CWBs

Question 17

how to decrease absenteeism

Answer 17

Well pay (paying employees for unused sick days) is the top way to decrease absenteeism

Financial bonus, games, PTO, recognition programs also effective

Question 18

Effects of turnover

Answer 18

The effect of turnover on org performance is mediated by the strength of an org’s HR efforts. Turnover will most affect orgs that don’t invest in their employees

Question 19

Reducing Turnover

Answer 19

Administer attitude surveys or do exit interviews

Understand that turnover is a process of disengagement from the org that takes days, weeks, months

Consider fit during selection process

Prevent unmet expectations: use RJPs, referrals, provide good environment and opportunities for advancement, competitive pay

Focus on improving job embeddedness

Question 20

Job embeddedness

Answer 20

Job embeddedness is the extent to which an employee has links to their jobs and community, the importance of the these links, and how easy they could be broken and reestablished elsewhere
Higher levels of embeddedness = less turnover

Question 21

describe leader emergence

Answer 21

People who become leaders possess traits or characteristics different from people who do not become leaders
Research indicates that to some extent, people are born with a desire to lead or not lead

We inherit certain traits and abilities that might influence our decision to seek leadership

Question 22

individual differences and leadership

Answer 22

High conscientiousness, openness, extraversion, masculinity, creativity and authoritarianism and low in neuroticism are more likely to be leaders

High self monitors are more likely to lead, and More intelligent people are more likely to lead

Question 23

research on motivation to lead

Answer 23

At first research indicated that traits weren’t strongly associated with leadership but later on we figured out that it’s probably because motivation to lead is very complex

Question 24

motivation to lead: factors

Answer 24

Three motivational factors of leadership
Affective ID: enjoy being in charge and leading others
Noncalculative: perceive that leadership will result in personal gain
Social-Normative: sense of duty to lead

People high in these motivational factors tend to obtain leadership experience and have confidence in their leadership skills

Question 25

Things that play a role in leader performance

Answer 25

traits/individual differences, cognitive ability, needs, gender, task vs. person orientation, initiating structure

Question 26

leader performance: traits

Answer 26

extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were positively related to leader performance management, decision making, and oral communication skills —-> leadership effectiveness High self monitors —-> leader performance: Has more to do with what leaders do vs. what traits they possess (e.g., a leader might have the trait of shyness but outwardly be more open because it’s important to their job) Some research on trait theory suggests that certain traits are necessary requirements for leadership excellence but that they don’t guarantee it

Question 27

leader performance: cognitive ability

Answer 27

moderate correlation between cognitive ability and leadership performance Cognitive ability is most important when the leader is not distracted by stressful situations and uses a more directive e leadership style

Question 28

leader performance: needs

Answer 28

Need for power, achievement, and affiliation Need for achievement —> leader performance Leadership motive pattern: High need for power, low need for affiliation —> high performing managers Effective leaders should be more concerned about results vs. being well liked by others Leaders shouldn’t place their need to be liked above the needs and goals of the organization

Question 29

leader performance: task vs. person orientation

Answer 29

Three major schools of that have postulated that differences in leader performance can be attributed to differences in the extent to which leaders are task vs person oriented Task centered leaders Leaders who define and structure their roles as well as the roles of their subordinates Theory X leaders Believe that employees are extrinsically motivated and thus lead by giving directives and setting goals

Question 30

leader performance: initiating structure

Answer 30

Extent to which leaders define and structure their roles and the roles of their subordinates

Question 31

leader performance: unsuccessful leaders

Answer 31

Poor leader behavior has three major causes Lack of leadership training given to supervisors : Norm is to promote employees from within or hire new one directly to role Cognitive Deficiencies : Poor leaders unable to learn from experience and unable to think strategically; they repeat the same mistakes a lot Personality Many unsuccessful leaders are insecure and have one of three personality types paranoid/passive aggressive, high likability floater, narcissist

Question 32

describe contingency model of leadership

Answer 32

Leader performance depends on traits x situation; this theory is a situational favorability theory Any individual’s leadership style is effective only in certain situations Individual leadership style is not easily changed Leadership training should concentrate on helping people understand their style of leadership and learn how to manipulate a situation so that the two align Favorableness of a situation is determined by 3 variables : More Task structuredness = more favorable More Leader position power = more favorable More positive leader-member relations = more favorable Research has generally supported this theory

Question 33

leader effectiveness: subordinate ability

Answer 33

Abilities and attitudes of followers influence leader effectiveness by interacting with style and characteristics of the leader

Question 34

Describe the path-goal theory of leadership

Answer 34

Leader behaviors are accepted to the extent to which it helps subordinates achieve their goals Supervisors adjust their behaviors to meet the needs of subordinates and this changes via the situation A leader can adopt one of four behavioral leadership styles to handle each situation; each style will only work in certain situations followers’ satisfaction and motivation as important theoretical mechanisms involved in the relation between leadership and follower performance, integrates OLS behaviors as a basis not strongly empirically supported

Question 35

discuss LMX theory of leadership

Answer 35

Concentrates on interactions between leaders and subordinates vs. in terms of situations and abilities Leaders develop different roles and relationships with the people under them and thus act differently with different subordinates (in group or out group) Employees with high quality LMX = high job sat, higher performance, less likely to turn over, more OCB theory is supported, But the relationship is complicated because of differences in perceptions of the LMX: Number of employees being supervised and impression management attempts by employees moderate the relationship between LMX and performance

Question 36

behavioral theories of leadership

Answer 36

it falls under skills theories; Leaders initiate ideas, informally interact with subordinates, stand up for and support subordinates, take responsibility, etc. These theories aren’t often described in textbooks but is often the way leadership is practiced in orgs In an applied sense, this means that we should ID leader behaviors within an org and then develop or train individuals to become effective leaders, either through experience or formal training Leadership through decision making Only in certain situations decisions are decisions best mad by the leader; in others, its best to involve subordinates, colleagues, or both Leadership through Walking Around Management by Walking Around (MBWA) Increases communication, helps build relationships, encourages employee participation Leadership through Power Able to get more resources and dictate policy

Question 37

describe transactional leadership theory

Answer 37

Task-focused behaviors like performance monitoring and consequences for performance Three dimensions Contigent reward; Leaders reward followers for engaging in desired behaviors Management by exception-active: Leaders who actively monitor performance and take corrective action when needed Management by exception-passive : Don’t actively monitor performance and only take corrective action when it’s serious

Question 38

Discuss transformational leadership (TL) theory

Answer 38

Focuses on changing or transforming the goals, values, ethics, and performance of others Visionary, charismatic, inspirational They develop a vision and change the org to fit this vision and also motivate followers to reach the vision or long term goal Have need to influence others, strong attitude that their beliefs and ideas are correct Most related to the personality dimension of extraversion Also positively related to agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience behaviors associated with transformational leadership should serve to (i) indicate to the follower that the leader is trustworthy and (ii) emotionally attach the employee to the organization and, in turn, increase the followers’ desires to exchange the leader’s trustworthiness and good will with improved performance

Question 39

Yukl (1994) guidelines for transformational leadership

Answer 39

Develop clear and appealing vision Develop strategy for attaining the vision Articulate and promote the vision Act confident and optimistic Express confidence in followers Use early success in small steps to build confidence Celebrate successes Use dramatic, symbolic actions to emphasize key values Lead by example create, modify, or eliminate such cultural forms

Question 40

research on TL

Answer 40

Yielded positive results Judge et al 2004 meta Strong correlations between TL and several aspects of leader effectiveness, such as follower sat, follower motivation, and group performance But similar results for transactional Bass 1997: TL is the most liked form of leadership and Is practiced across cultures Hunt & Laing (1997) Too much effort has been expended in trying to label leaders as transformational or charismatic Proposed that excellent leadership should be defined by exemplar; is a leader similar to successful leaders or not Good leaders possess 5 characteristics Vision, differentiation from followers, values, communicate vision and values to others, flaws

Question 41

leadership: where are we today?

Answer 41

Each theory has some truth, and the best theory about leadership is really some combination of the theories Taken together, research indicates that leadership emerges as a set of interactions between: A leader’s traits and skills Individuals likely to be successful leaders if they Have received leadership training and mastered leadership skills High self monitors High in both task and person orientations Have leadership motive pattern (high need for power, low need for affiliation) Are intelligent Are emotionally stable Possess skills and personality to be a TL A situation’s demands and characteristics IF an individual has the above, the their leadership performance will depend on the characteristics of the situation Certain people will be effective leaders in certain situations when particular types of people are followers Individuals who have a wide variety of relevant skills will one best able to be effective leaders in a larger variety of situations Leaders who are able to adapt their interpersonal styles to fit the needs of followers will be better leaders than those who stick to just one behavioral style It is important that the leader be able to understand the needs of the situation, the follower, or both and then behave accordingly Follower’s needs and characteristics Leaders who accurately recognize situational and follower needs will be more effective than those who do not The importance of leadership : Leadership affects org performance Relates to job sat, commitment, intention to turnover, and OCBs

Question 42

In general, the various theories suggest that employees will be highly motivated if

Answer 42

Predisposed via personality Expectations have been met Job and org are consistent with their values Have been given achievable goals Receive feedback on their goal attainment Org rewards them for goal achievement Employees perceive they’re being treated fairly Coworkers demonstrate a high level of motivation

Question 43

individual differences and work motivation

Answer 43

Four individual differences that are most related to work motivation are personality, self esteem, intrinsic motivation tendency, and need for achievement

Question 44

Personality & work motivation

Answer 44

Conscientiousness best personality predictor of work performance & OCB Extraversion most highly correlated with number of promotions received

Question 45

work motivation: self esteem

Answer 45

consistency theory: Self esteem is a motivator to perform well on the job Positive correlation beween self esteem and performance High self esteem employees desire to perform at high levels and employees with low self esteem desire to perform at low levels Chronic self esteem, situational (self-efficacy), and socially influenced

Question 46

motivation: consistency theory: research & application

Answer 46

Research supports consistency theory Self esteem —> motivation Self esteem —> job performance .26 (Judge and Bono, 2001 meta) On the basis of consistency theory, we should be able to increase performance by increasing employee self esteem and research supports this idea Interventions designed to increase self esteem or self efficacy greatly increase job performance Self Esteem Workshops that give insights into employee strengths raise self esteem and self efficacy Train supervisors to communicate a feeling of confidence in employees Manager confidence —> self esteem increase—> performance increase Managers treat employees according to their own expectations of the employee’s performance

Question 47

intrinsic motivation: work motivation

Answer 47

Enjoy performing the actual tasks or the challenge of successfully completing the task Don’t need external rewards like pay or praise; in fact pay might actually decrease it There is a debate among researchers who believe that rewards reduce intrinsic motivation and those who don’t

Question 48

work motivation: needs for achievement & power

Answer 48

employees differ in the extent wo which the are motivated by thinned for achievement, affiliation, and power

Question 49

work motivation: self-regulating behavior

Answer 49

The extent to which an employee will be successful depends on the employer’s ability to wisely select and set goals as well as his or her ability to monitor and adjust goals

Question 50

work motivation: meeting expectations of employees

Answer 50

How well the job aligns with what the employee wants, values, and expects affects how motivated and satisfied an employee will be with their job Employees come in with certain expectations of what the job should be like based on what recruiters tell them and other factors like experience or what they’ve heard; when this doesn’t align with the actual job motivation decreases Highlights importance of RJPs Employees compare what the org promises to do for them vs what they actually do, can retaliate if org doesn’t deliver

Question 51

work motivation: job characteristics theory

Answer 51

Employees desire jobs that are meaningful, provide them opportunity to be autonomous, and provide them with feedback of results of efforts Jobs have motivation potential if they allow employees to use a variety of skills and connect their efforts to an outcome (task identification) that has meaning and is useful

Question 52

work motivation: needs, values, & wants

Answer 52

Misalignment between needs, values, and wants vs. what a job offers leads to low levels of motivation and satisfaction

Question 53

work motivation: Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Answer 53

Has lost popularity but is still relevant for organizations on a basic level Basic biological needs Safety needs Job security, org financial stability, and feeling safe in the work environment are extremely important Social Needs Company get togethers or sporting events Ego Needs Praise, awards, promotion, salary, etc. Self-Actualization Needs Doing the same job over and over may decrease motivation through job dissatisfaction (e.g., working on an assembly line for 10 years) Providing employees with recognition, enrichment, and a safe workplace increases motivation and satisfaction. Primary reason why Maslow’s theory is still used in practice even though not favored in academia

Question 54

work motivation: goal setting

Answer 54

Goal setting increases motivation Most successful way to set goals is to use the SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time bound) method : Specific Properly set goals are concrete and specific (Locke & Latham, 2002) “I will print 500 pages within the next hour” vs. “I will print as many pages as I can” Measurable Difficult but Attainable Properly set goals are high but attainable Employees will quit trying if a goal is set too high People differ in how they set goals People high in conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness and low in agreeableness and neuroticism set high goals Relevant Time Bound Employee participation in goal setting increases the commitment to reaching the goal, but Simply participating in goal setting does not increase performance

Question 55

work motivation: goal progress feedback

Answer 55

Feedback increases the effectiveness of goal setting Must be given for good behaviors along with the bad

Question 56

work motivation: rewards

Answer 56

Providing incentives can increase motivation Operant conditioning principles are at the heart of this Employees will engage in behaviors for which they are rewarded and avoid behaviors for which they are punished; this is a very effective method of increasing motivation

Question 57

factors to consider in determining effectiveness of an incentive program

Answer 57

timing, contingency of consequences, type of incentive used, individual vs. group incentives

Question 58

expectancy theory

Answer 58

Expectancy (E): perceived relationship between amount of effort an employee puts in and the resulting outcome Instrumentality (I): extent to which the outcome of a workers’ performance, if noticed, results in a particular consequence Valence (V): extent to which an employee values a particular consequence Motivation = E(I x V) All possible outcomes of a behavior are determined and then the valence of each is multiplied by the probability that it occurs at a particular performance level, and then the sum of these products is multiplied by the expectancy of an employee putting in the effort to attain the necessary level of performance The higher the score on each component, the greater the employee’s motivation to perform The theory is most predictive when people behave rationally and when they have internal locus of control Can be used to suggest ways to change employee motivation Criticisms are usually about the formula, that things need to be added to it instead of multiplying

Question 59

work motivation: rewards vs. punishment

Answer 59

Punishment needs to fit the crime Both reward and punishment affect employee behavior and attitudes, but the magnitude of the effect is much stronger for rewards

Question 60

equity theory

Answer 60

Our levels of motivation and job satisfaction are related to how fairly we believe we are treated in comparison with others If we believe we are being treated unfairly, we attempt to change our beliefs or behaviors until the situation appears to be fair Three components involved in the perception of fairness Inputs: personal elements we put into our jobs (e.g., time, effort, education, experience, distance driven to work) outputs: elements we receive from our job (pay, benefits, challenge, responsibility) We subconsciously compute an input/output ratio and compare them to those of other employees Employees can seek greater output by asking for a raise or decreasing their input Equity theory was springboard for modern research on organizational justice

Question 61

integration of motivation theories (put it all together)

Answer 61

People come to a job with a predisposition towards motivation (Individual Differences Consistency Theory) High self esteem, high need for achievement, intrinsic motivation are more motivated in general We will be motivated if the job itself and the organization meet our expectations and values and satisfy our needs (Discrepancy & Needs theories) Employees who have, understand, and agree to goals will be more motivated (Goal-Setting theory) Goals must be challenging and reasonable (Goal Setting & Expectancy theories) Extrinsically motivated people will be more motivated if behavior results in a reward (Operant Learning & Expectancy theories) Awards must have value to the employee to be motivating; different people value different rewards, and care must be taken to ensure that a variety of rewards are available (expectancy, discrepancy theories) Rewards that are valued will be motivating only if they are given in an equitable way; perceptions of equality are as important as the reality of equity (Equity Theory) If other employees are motivated, there is an increased probability that we will model their behavior and be motivated too (Social Influence Theory)

Question 62

Stages of Org Change: Lewin 1958

Answer 62

Unfreezing: org must convince employees and stakeholders that current state of affairs is unacceptable and that change is necessary Moving: org takes steps to move the org to the desired state Refreezing: org develops ways to keep the new changes in place

Question 63

Stages of Change: Carnall 2008

Answer 63

Denial: create reasons why the proposed change won’t work Defense: justify their positions and current ways of doing things; if change is occurring, employees figure they’re doing something wrong Discarding: realize change is inevitable and old ways must be discarded Adaptation: employees test new system, learn how it functions, and make adjustments to their performance Internalization: immersed in new culture and have accepted their new coworkers and work environment

Question 64

important factors in employee acceptance of org change

Answer 64

``` type of change reason for change person making change people being changed way change is implemented organizational/departmental culture employee empowerment regarding the change ```

Question 65

why is employee acceptance a challenge in org change?

Answer 65

Employees often initially resistant Enjoy old way of doing things Fear that change will result in less favorable working conditions Fear their skills may not be valued Fear of being able to adapt to the new change

Question 66

types of org change

Answer 66

Evolutionary: continuous improvement Revolutionary: major change, jolt to the system, more drastic; most difficult

Question 67

importance of reasons for org change

Answer 67

Least likely to accept the change if they do not understand it or were not told about why the change is being implemented

Question 68

when are workers most positive about org change?

Answer 68

When the source of change is within the work group rather than external Leader making change is respected, well liked, and has history of success

Question 69

person being changed: types

Answer 69

Change agents: enjoy change Change analysts: only want change if it’s going to make a positive difference Receptive changers: probably won’t instigate the change but are willing to go along with it Essential for an org Usually people with high self esteem, optimism, and internal locus of control Reluctant changers: don’t instigate or welcome change, but will change if necessary

Question 70

implementing change: creating an atmosphere for change

Answer 70

Need to create dissatisfaction for current system/status quo Survey employees to determine how satisfied they are with the current system Will often reveal employees aren’t satisfied with current way of doing things Share results with employees to make them more willing to change Then, orgs need to work to reduce the fear of change by providing emotional support, allowing employees to vent and discuss their feelings, and letting employees feel as though they can make mistakes during transition period Describe benefits of change to employees

Question 71

implementing change: communicating the details

Answer 71

Employees are most responsive when kept well informed Communicating change, training those making the communication to deal with hostility and resistance, and being honest with employees

Question 72

implementing change: time frame

Answer 72

Longer it takes, more opportunity there is for something to go wrong Should not remain in “change mode” for more than 2 years

Question 73

implementing change: training needs

Answer 73

Train employees on new system

Question 74

implementing change: role of org culture

Answer 74

Each department has subculture that affects how they react to change Most changes require alteration to both the overall culture and the subculture

Question 75

implementing change: changing the culture

Answer 75

Hold on to successful elements of present culture and add new elements that are important

Question 76

implementing change: assessing the new culture: how to

Answer 76

Step 1: Needs Assessment Current culture must be analyzed and compared with the desired culture to determine what might need to change Review current practices relating to the change Data usually collected via observations, review of existing documentation, employee interviews and surveys Step 2: Determining Executive Direction Analyze the needs assessment to determine decisions or actions that will reinforce the culture and to assess the feasibility of certain changes Step 3: Implementation Considerations How will the new culture be implemented? Committees, ad hoc groups set up to carry out changes or will management execute changes? Allow employees to participate in implementation Step 4: Training Train employees in new philosophy for the new culture Can reduce ambiguity/confusion surrounding the different interpretations of change by managers vs. employees Step 5: Evaluation of New Culture Address whether old norms and proceeders still exist or if the change has actually occurred

Question 77

implementing change: creating dissatisfaction with the current culture

Answer 77

Communicate to employees the future impact of continuing to do things the way they’re currently done Create necessary displeasure with status quo Distribute attitude surveys that ask people how satisfied they are with the org’s goal and to suggest ideas for changes and distribute those results Commitment from all levels is needed - seek employee input in the process

Question 78

implementing change: maintaining new culture

Answer 78

Reward employees for successfully participating and cooperating with new system Recognition, pay for performance, etc.

Question 79

implementing change: selection of employees

Answer 79

Select future employees on the basis of how well the epitomize the new culture Otherwise, old ways will return Organizational socialization of new employees


Question 80

org change: factors in determining when employees should be involved in decision making

Answer 80

Importance of decision quality (time or effort spent making the decision) Leader knowledge of problem area Do leaders have sufficient information to make decision alone? If yes, consultation with others is desired only if leaders want their subordinates to feel involved Structure of the problem Extent to which leader knows what info is needed and how it can be obtained Importance of decision acceptance How important is it that the decision is accepted by others? Probability of Decision Acceptance If leader is popular and viewed as competent, acceptance more likely Subordinate trust & motivation Motivated to achieve the organizational goals Probability of subordinate conflict If probability is high, might be better for leader to simply seek input and then make decision alone

Question 81

org change: levels of employee input

Answer 81

trust & autonomy increases as more empowerment is given Following No real control, given instruction about what to do and how to do it Lots of quality control by supervisor Might be new or inexperienced employees Ownership of Own Product Still told what to do but are solely responsible for quality of output Advisory Asked to provide feedback, suggestions, and input Org might not follow it but will consider it Makes good business sense - employees should be most knowledgable about their own jobs Shared/Participative/Team Decision made at group level Rare that team’s decision is not implemented At this level employees must be trained on how to make decisions and also willing to take on decision-making responsibilities Absolute Absolute authority to make decision on their own Some employees may be leery about this So orgs need to remove this feeling of uneasiness if possible Must receive training Discuss mistakes rather than punish for them

Question 82

org communication: attitude surveys

Answer 82

Only useful if the org actually takes the results seriously Not beneficial if a problem is discovered and nothing is done with employee feedback Must share all of results if results are shared at all

Question 83

improving employee communication skills

Answer 83

Training workshops are common, but improvement is usually short term

Question 84

definition of a team

Answer 84

Not all groups are considered teams a work team is “a collection of three or more individuals who interact intensively to provide an organizational product, plan, decision, or service”

Question 85

teams: types of tasks

Answer 85

Additive = group’s performance is equal to the sum of the performances by each group member o Conjunctive = group’s performance dependent upon least effective group member o Disjunctive = group’s performance is based on the most talented group member (e.g., problem solving, brainstorming)

Question 86

teams: list factors that affect group performance

Answer 86

``` cohesion homogeneity membership stability isolation outside pressure group status group ability and efficacy personality communication group roles social facilitation groupthink ```

Question 87

teams: group cohesion

Answer 87

The extent to which group members like and trust one another, are committed to accomplishing a team goal, and share a feeling of group pride  Cohesion isn’t necessary for ultimate group success, but research consensus is that it’s good for performance if it’s not too high  More cohesion means Better performance, better decision quality, higher member satisfaction, more member interaction, more employee courtesy  BUT cohesion can also be detrimental to performance if it is too high • Groups lose sight of organizational goals • Conform to norms of lower performance even though they can do a lot better

Question 88

teams: group homogeneity

Answer 88

 Important to consider when assigning groups  Mixed results found on whether it’s good for performance  Slightly heterogeneous groups appear to be good

Question 89

teams: group size

Answer 89

 Larger groups = lower productivity • But are best for additive tasks or disjunctive tasks  5 members appears to be a good number • Perform best • BUT this is only for certain types of tasks o Conjunctive are best for smaller groups

Question 90

teams: group status & how to increase perception of it

Answer 90

 Higher group status = higher cohesion  They just have to believe that they have high status in order to see increases in cohesion  Leaders can increase cohesion via group status by • Increasing perception that the group is difficult to join • Group activities are perceived as special

Question 91

teams: group ability & confidence

Answer 91

 Higher group efficacy (specific tasks) = better performance  Higher group potency (in general) = better performance

Question 92

teams: group member personality

Answer 92

 Groups with members who have higher openness to experience and higher emotional stability = better performance  Cognitive ability matters most for intellectual tasks

Question 93

teams: communication structure

Answer 93

 Best network structure depends on situation and goals of the group • When goal is solve a problem as quickly as possible, centralized network is best • Good leaders consider this and thus choose the communication network that best fits the facilitation of reaching the goals for the group

Question 94

teams: group roles

Answer 94

 For a group to be successful, its members’ roles must fall into one of two categories • Task oriented or social oriented  Usually naturally filled by members’ personalities • High in conscientiousness = task-oriented roles • High in agreeableness = social oriented roles  Will be assigned by leader if not naturally filled

Question 95

teams: when to construct a team vs. let employees work individually

Answer 95

 If the task is complex or not well learned, employees should work alone  If the task I easy or well learned, and each individual’s performance can be identified, working in groups is best  If task involves creativity, members should work independently and then come together to discuss  Electronic brainstorming groups perform better than those that meet in person and it is more cost-effective

Question 96

teams: Groupthink; when does it happen, and how can you decrease it?

Answer 96

 Occurs most often when the group is • High in cohesion, insulated from qualified outsiders, has an illusion of invulnerability, infallibility, or both, believes that it’s morally superior, is under a lot of pressure to conform, has a leader who promotes a favorite solution, has gatekeepers who keep information from other group members  How to decrease group think • Leader shouldn’t state own position until later in decision making process • Leader should encourage open discussion • Separate into subgroups to increase chance of disagreement • Group member can play devil’s advocate

Question 97

factors to consider before calling a group a "team"

Answer 97

identification with members interdependence:  Team members need and rely on other members power differentiation:  Members are treated as equals  Apologies are given and they are polite to each other social distance  Social distance is decreased, casualness is encouraged among members conflict management tactics  Respond to conflict by collaborating, making attempts to compromise with each other negotiation process  In teams, members go for a win-win for everyone

Question 98

how teams develop

Answer 98

```  Forming, storming, norming, and performing stages  Remember teams articles from class indicate this isn’t always linear (Gersick’s punctuated equilibrium model) ```

Question 99

reasons why teams don't always work

Answer 99

o Team isn’t actually a team, excessive meeting requirements, lack of empowerment, lack of skill, distrust, unclear objectives

Question 100

what is the overall best predictor of performance? why?

Answer 100

GMA Causal analyses of the determinants of job performance show that the major effect of GMA is on the acquisition of job knowledge: People who are higher in GMA acquire more job knowledge and acquire it faster. The amount of job-related knowledge required on even less complex jobs is much greater than is generally realized. Higher levels of job knowledge lead to higher levels of job performance. Viewed negatively, not knowing what one should be doing—or even not knowing all that one should about what one should be doing—is detrimental to job performance. In addition, knowing what one should be doing and how to do it depends strongly on GMA.

Question 101

discuss technology's impact on employee learning and performance

Answer 101

• As technology advances, there may be greater opportunities for differentiation between employee levels of performance. o Over time, more technologies have become available to employees to help them learn and perform their jobs more effectively and efficiently. o When desktop computers first entered organizations, their functionality and purpose was limited. Over time, the number of software applications available to organizations has become almost limitless with each organization leveraging a unique mix of applications and platforms. o Theoretically, this means that the greater proficiency an employee possesses for applications and platforms required for a given job, the better the employee should be able to perform. When jobs require proficiency in only one application, there should be less differentiation between employees’ performance than when a job requires proficiency in multiple applications.

Question 102

discuss differences between PM and PA

Answer 102

o Performance appraisal occurs once a year and is initiated by a requires from HR, while PM occurs at much more frequent intervals and can be initiated by a supervisor OR a subordinate o PA systems are developed by HR and handed to managers to use in evaluating their subordinates; PM is jointly developed by managers and the employees who report to them o PA feedback occurs once each year and follows the appraisal process; PM feedback occurs whenever a supervisor or subordinate feels the need for a discussion about expectations and performance o In PA, the role of the appraiser is to reach agreement with the employee appraised about the level of effectiveness displayed and to identify areas for improvement; in PM, the appraiser’s role is to understand the performance criteria and help the employee understand how his/her behavior fits with those criteria and to look for areas for improvement; they are attempting to come to some shared meaning about expectations and strategic value of those expectations, rather than simply clarifying the meaning of a non-strategic performance area and definitions of effectiveness in that area o In PA, the appraisee’s role is to accept or reject the evaluation and acknowledge areas that need improvement; in PM, the role of the appraisee is identical to the role of the appraiser: to understand the performance criteria and how his/her behavior bits with those criteria

Question 103

components of PM

Answer 103

definition of performance, including organizational objectives and strategies measurement process (the aspect of PA) communication between supervisor and subordinate about the extent to which individual behavior aligns with the expectations of org

Question 104

advantages of PM

Answer 104

feedback + recognition increases the motivation to perform as well as self esteem facilitates organizational change enhances motivation, commitment, and intentions to stay enhances engagement

Question 105

the PM process

Answer 105

1. pre reqs: knowledge of org mission and strategic goals + knowledge of the job 2. performance planning: employee and supervisor should have knowledge of desired results/outcomes as well as behaviors. create a development plan based on these 3. performance execution which must include: commitment to goals, ongoing performance feedback and coaching, communication between employee & supervisor, collecting and sharing performance data, preparing for performance reviews, supervisors must observe and document performance, give feedback 4. performance assessment: both manager and employee fill out PA form; discrepancies are important for identifying areas for development 5. performance review: ID what employee has done well vs. poorly by citing specific negative or positive behaviors. agree on action plan, provide recommendations for improvement that utilize employee's skills, set up follow up meeting and what will be discussed then 6. performance renewal and recontracting: use insights gained from other phases to improve

Question 106

implementing a PM system

Answer 106

preparation: communication, appeals process, training programs, pilot testing ongoing monitoring and evaluation

Question 107

differences between CM and JA

Answer 107

 Executives pay more attention to CM  CM often attempt to distinguish top from average performers  CM frequently include descriptions of how the competencies change or progress with employee level  CMs are usually directly linked to business objectives and strategies  CM are typically developed top-down (Start with execs)  CM may consider future job requirements either directly or indirectly  CM may be presented in a manner that facilitates ease of use (org-specific language, schematics)  CM typically identifies a finite number of competencies and applies them across multiple jobs or functions  CM are frequently used to actively align HR systems  CM are often an OD interview that seeks broad organization change as opposed to a simple data collection effort

Question 108

best uses for competency modeling

Answer 108

```  Hiring  Training  Evaluation  Promotions  Development  Compensation ```

Question 109

why PA is broken and how to fix it

Answer 109

PA has been reduced to a purely administrative process; the focus has been taken away from the connection to day to day activities of employees ; well developed tools and systems alone are not enough to achieve effective PM. interventions to improve the process should focus on improving communication between manager and employee and aspects of the leader employee relationship

Question 110

discuss the idea of star performers

Answer 110

they can occupy any role, established based on their output. time is important in IDing stars because stars should show great performance over time and not just a single instance. with stars the focus is on results, which takes away from the importance of traits or how they get the job done.

Question 111

the future of job performance

Answer 111

using non normal distributions, focusing on more variability in performance defined by the tail (a power law distribution) rather than the midpoint as is the focus of normal distributions. increased job complexity and flexible hierarchies

Question 112

practical considerations for star performance for now and in the future

Answer 112

allow stars to revolve in and out of teams use network analysis to better identify the organizational antecedents that allow stars to emerge and sustain high performance training interventions could focus more on marginally improving star performance vs. substantially improving average performance will better increase overall production target the stars who most align with the org's strategic core competencies

Question 113

OD interventions: characteristics

Answer 113

planned org-wide managed from the top purpose = to increase org effecitveness and health uses behavioral science

Question 114

OD interventions: how to gain top level leadership buy in

Answer 114

design the OD effort so that it supports or even helps identify the org strategy; this will give it a much greater chance of being resources properly

Question 115

criticisms of OD

Answer 115

lack of clarity, lack of consistent definitions and what vs. what does not constitute an OD effort

Question 116

org change: theory E and theory O

Answer 116

theory E: an action approach to change based on economic value; goal is maximizing revenue and worth. it focuses on structure and systems where change is systematic and comes from the top down. motivation for employees is usually in the form of financial incentives. consultants have a major role in analyzing problems and shaping solutions. used for downsizing and layoffs theory O: goal is to develop org capabilities. money is not the primary motive, but rather making a difference. leadership is driven from the bottom up, and change is continuous. motivation is intrinsic and consultants role is minimized. used for cooperation with unions, focusing on customer satisfactions, compensatory systems aligned with org culture application: best way is to combine them. use theory E first and then implement theory O in order to preserve the quality of org culture and justice perceptions. very hard to do both at same time, so sequencing works well

Question 117

OD: diologic vs. diagnostic

Answer 117

Diologic: does not focus on behavior but on changing mindsets/how people think. doesn't treat the org as a social system in which reality is socially constructed. does not formally emphasize data collection or accurate diagnosis for what purpose is the data being collected?

Question 118

what are alpha, beta, and gamma change

Answer 118

alpha change = actual change in behaviors or attitudes beta change: respondent's subjective new interpretation of the scale gamma = reconceptualization of the measured variable which results in pre-post test measuring different constructs

Question 119

ABG change: how to identify

Answer 119

gamma: look at congruence between factor structures of pre and post test measures via CFA; if high, no gamma change (good) beta: changes in ideal scores from pre to posttest; look at the regression of posttest on pretest variables. if regression coefficients are unequal, beta change has occurred alpha can be determined based on process of elimination of other two

Question 120

how will O side topics be relevant in the future of work?

Answer 120

work engagement will be important teams focused on cohesion and diversity money is in idea generation; innovation necessary leadership still relevant to motivate followers: LMX relevant

Question 121

explain Kahn's conceptualization of engagement

Answer 121

based on the premise that engagement is influenced by three antecedent psychological conditions: experienced meaningful- ness of work; psychological safety; and experienced availability. Kahn (1990) argues that these three con- ditions are influenced by the nature of the job, the social environment, personal resources and energy. This perspective draws on job characteristics theory (Hackman and Oldham 1976) and shows that some aspects of work design such as autonomy, feedback and task significance will generate the psychological conditions necessary for engagement

Question 122

where is engagement research headed?

Answer 122

The field is moving to a place of more interest to managers and interventions to increase engagement, alongside subjective individual’s experiences of engagement. A significant gap still remains on engagement’s definition and discriminant construct validity; because the JDR model and UWES totally dominate the field currently, the limitations this measurement model implies are in need of clarity. longitudinal research is also needed.

Question 123

trends in PM research

Answer 123

Designing scales that are more structured Identifying types of rating errors Rater training to minimize these errors 360 evaluations for developmental purposes Rater motivation to provide accurate ratings

Question 124

org culture: definition and implications

Answer 124

a set of shared mental assumptions that guide interpretation and action by defining appropriate behavior for various situations implies that culture is the view of the world that the members share implies that culture is what guides employee behavior

Question 125

culture: conceptualization

Answer 125

three levels of culture 1. artifacts, technology, behavior patterns 2. shared values within the org: important to distinguish between values that are espoused by the org and those that are actually in operation 3. basic beliefs and assumptions held by members of an org: deeply ingrained, hard to study

Question 126

major models of org culture

Answer 126

1. OReilley model: Org Culture Profile; cultures can be distinguished based on the predominant values that are reinforced within the org 7 values: innovation, stability, respect for others, outcome orientation, attention to detail, team orientation, aggressiveness 2. Denison model: culture can be described according to 4 general dimensions: adaptability, mission, involvement, consistency; orgs described along 2 dimensions: external vs internal; flexible vs stable newer model, will likely be used in future research

Question 127

functions of org culture

Answer 127

external adaptation: culture reflects behaviors and beliefs that have survived over time because they have helped a group of people adapt more successfully to their environment internal integration: culture can be thought of as the glue that bonds the social structure of the larger org together ASA framework fits here; those who don't share org values either declined to join company or left

Question 128

measuring org culture

Answer 128

self reports easy to administer, provide quantitative indices to describe culture ethnographic methods: observe and record behaviors in org for extended period of time; slightly better than self reports, better capturing of culture need informants, they should be long tenured

Question 129

changing org culture

Answer 129

culture doesn't develop randomly, it's developed over time because it's an adaptation to the environment org culture change is difficult because by its nature culture is deeply ingrained culture is rarely questioned or scrutinized, many people benefit from the culture remaining the way it is currently

Question 130

nature of org change

Answer 130

organizations pass through distinct life stages 1. birth/early growth: heavy influence from founders, top down development 2. org midlife: time of growth/expansion; org subcultures developed that can threaten the overarching org culture if too strong 3. org maturity: org faced with choice of renewal or stagnation; failing to change the culture = ultimate failure of org

Question 131

impact of org culture

Answer 131

culture impacts org performance, recruitment and retention, and employee satisfaction/well being 1. org culture does make a difference in bottom line org performance (revenues, stock price, net income) adaptive cultures = better performance 2. individuals tend to be more attracted to orgs that have cultures that align with their own values ASA; once people are in the org they will remain if compatible 3. mismatch between actual culture and what employees feel the culture is associated with lower job at, higher strain, stress, turnover intent

Question 132

climate vs. culture

Answer 132

climate focuses on how the org functions (what it supports, rewards, expects), while culture addresses the assumptions and values attributed to why particular activities and behaviors are rewarded, supported, expected

Question 133

types of cultures

Answer 133

task cultures: stress importance of structuring tasks, being clear about expectations, and achieving goals relationship cultures: focus on developing people in order to build employee cohesion and collaboration

Question 134

attraction and socialization

Answer 134

people are the most important part of an org; to remain successful, an org must focus its efforts on attracting and selecting employees appropriately. orgs should properly socialize new employees to help them adjust to the work environment; provide them information and allow them to ask questions and seek out information

Question 135

organizational perspective of the recruitment process

Answer 135

aim of recruiting is to generate a large pool of highly qualified applicants so that the org stands the best chance of success recruitment planning focuses on the number of employees needed, when they'll be needed, and how the labor market will affect these things it starts with identifying the org's plan for where it's going and how it's going to get there, putting clear implications on staffing needs. an assessment of the supply of labor for various job categories also helps.

Question 136

ASA framework

Answer 136

applicants are attracted to and stay in organizations with cultures that are compatible with their personalities. research has generally supported this theory; members of orgs, workgroups tend to be rather homogeneous in terms of personality. implies that orgs need to be aware of how they portray themselves in media and other recruitment sources

Question 137

Kirkpatrick training evaluation model

Answer 137

Is very generalizable and follows a goal based approach. Level 1: reaction: degree to which they find it favorable, engaging, and job relevant. Measured with attitude questionnaires that are distributed after the training occurs. Level 2: learning: The degree to which participants acquire the intended knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence and commitment based on their participation in the training. Usually done via testing or examination; pre testing and post testing must be combined in order to be valid. Level 3: Behavior: The degree to which participants apply what they learned during training when they are back on the job; did performance improve? Can be formal or informal testing of the capabilities to perform the skills while on the job. Level 4: Results: The degree to which targeted outcomes occur as a result of the training, and assess the cost vs. benefits of the program. Measures impact of training program via improved work quality, quality, morale, etc. harder to measure

Question 138

literature on org justice

Answer 138

Meta analyses at the beginning of the 2000s were abundant and then interest in the topic subsided. The past decade has viewed justice through theoretical lens of social exchange theory, and reactions to justice is usually seen through affect. Social exchange quality (trust, org commitment, POS, LMX) and affect both serve as a mediator between justice and performance (task and contextual). Distributive justice was first construct of interest in the justice literature. More recent work focuses on procedural justice. The current conceptualization of justice adds a third factor, interactional justice. There was some debate over whether interactional is a third type on its own or if it is better conceptualized as a sub-type underneath procedural. Much disagreement before Colquitt 2001 meta over factor structure of justice, made worse by low quality and inconsistent measures of the dimensions. Colquitt 2001 suggests 4 types, with informational justice being the 4th dimension.

Question 139

Org justice : how to foster

Answer 139

Distributive: outcomes should be consistent with the norms for allocation; equality Procedural: fostered through voice during decision making; influence over outcomes; adherence to fair process criteria (consistency, lack of bias, accuracy, ethicality) Interactional: decision makers treat people with respect and sensitivity and explain the rationale for decisions thoroughly informational: share information that can be shared

Question 140

Psychological safety: future research directions

Answer 140

1. Investigate influence of culture on psych safety climate development, deployment and sustainment of PS 2. Investigate potential negative effects of PS (too much of a good thing effect, TMGT). Teams high in PS are more likely to engage in unethical behavior. 3. How does PS strength change across the different stages of team development 4. Using more qualitative methods to get a deeper understanding of PS, such as qualitative interviews or observational techniques like looking at verbal and non-verbal communication cues. Face reading software could be used to determine the extent to which people feel comfortable 5. Examining PS in more collective cultures

Question 141

discuss psych safety

Answer 141

Especially important in work teams, critical to high performing work teams. Especially important in work environments where employee and customer safety are paramount; PS reduces employee errors and enhances safety, increases team and individual learning. Behaviors such as sharing of ideas, voicing concerns, seeking more feedback result from high levels of PS. Conceptually distinct but some overlap with trust; PS focuses on how group members perceive a group norm, trust = how one person views another. Important in the future as team work becomes more common and creativity and innovation become objective focus for orgs as work becomes more complex and specialized. Leadership behavior, such as support, integrity, and openness is also important to facilitating psych safety. Psych safety is both an antecedent and mediating mechanism to many outcomes. Individual’s perceived status within a team = more psych safety. Connection with training: high PS = better learning = better performance. PS also linked to overall org performance. Although its a multilevel construct, it’s most meaningful at the team level unless the org is small. In summary, most of the antecedents of PS are under the category of supportive environments, where PS is a mediator. different work groups within the same org can have different PS climates, which indicates that it's a group level construct and that much of the variance is attributable to supervisors and managers

Question 142

practical implications of psych safety research

Answer 142

Even when org culture is strong, PS can vary from department to department and from team to team. This is due to the differences in communication styles that send different messages about the consequences of taking interpersonal risks. Managers should be intentional in their communication to their teams and orgs should try to be consistent and congruent with this in order to foster it at org level. PS needs to be combined with other things in order to best enable learning and performance (strategy, vision, goals, supportive leadership etc)

Question 143

CWBs

Answer 143

Broadly defined, little agreement exists on how such behaviors should be categorized and how they relate to each other. Recent metas indicate one higher order factor at general level with more specific facets under. Models range from dichotomous to extremely fine grained. The most important distinction is the focal target of the behavior; whether its towards the org/individuals or the self

Question 144

virtual teams

Answer 144

Are growing and expected to be even more common in future. Allow flexibility in staffing and cost savings from reduced travel, but lower levels of cohesion, work sat, trust, cooperation, and commitment to team goals. Also more difficult to lead than face to face teams, especially leader behaviors such as motivating and managing dynamics. To minimize these effects, we need to train leaders to invest more time and effort to learning how to use and apply media properly, but this is not always feasible. Additionally, supplementing hierarchical leadership with shared leadership (collaborative decision making & shared responsibility, mutual influence process) and structural supports (structure and organized task delegation, fair reward systems, communication that facilitates connectivity) in virtual teams helps.

Question 145

leader development

Answer 145

is shaped by: Experience matters but not just length of time, also breadth of experience Skills matter, but different skills are important at different times in a leader’s career, it’s important to develop skills: creativity, intelligence, wisdom important as well as motivation to enhance these Self development particularly work, career growth and mastery orientations dispositional characteristics that facilitate self development behaviors interpersonal: LMX important Authenticity: emotions and values facilitate its emergence and development Processes: shape rate and pattern of leader development; emerge through mentoring, 360 feedback, training, action learning etc. When evaluating LD interventions use indicators of development not performance since its contaminated. Also SNA could help determine whether has been a change in connectivity among leader and subordinates. Along with HLM to assess multilevel change over time and RODI

Question 146

360 degree feedback

Answer 146

Should be for developmental purposes, for self awareness When designing it, consider strategic and org factors that can help link it back to org performance improvement and goals, and embedded within HR. Also consider the org culture; not every culture is a good place for 360 feedback and it won’t be effective in a culture that doesn’t support it.

Question 147

Leadership research trajectory including future directions

Answer 147

Trait theories dominated at beginning but results disappointing, Ohio State studies broke ground with consideration and initiating structure. These two dimensions took over as the dominant lens until TL came around. Consideration and initiating structure were robust but researchers questioned the generality of the validates and measures themselves. Although it was limited in terms of being empirically tested, some thought the relationships of the two to outcomes were curvilinear. Although OLS dimensions were an important basis for leadership research, they have often been criticized in terms of utility and validity. the four types of behaviors that have typically dominated leadership research are consideration (job sat) initiating structure (role conflict/ambiguity), contingent rewards (justice/motivation) and TL, each with different theoretical rationales (listed there). Virtual teams is a good future direction. In terms of theory we also need to integrate theory and make it more comprehensive given the lack of agreement in the current theories that often diverge from each other. There are all these separate theories that only explain it to a certain extent, although LMX and TL are promising, they’re still not the whole picture. We need to work towards getting on the same page and integrating these theories making them more applicable for practitioners. One specific thing we could explore is the various mediating mechanisms between leader behavior and follower performance, cause there are so many but we need to hone in more on which specific behaviors account for the most variance in follower performance in order to improve theory and practical recommendations for leaders to be effective.

Question 148

Leader development research

Answer 148

Shorter lifespan than leadership research in general; focuses on developing the individual to exert leadership effectively, much research in the general field of leadership has focused on linking personality but this doesn’t make sense from a developmental standpoint since personality is inherently enduring across a lifespan, so it doesnt explain much in this context. From a behavioral standpoint, training has been a focus but this is short term not long term planning for development. Leadership development is multilevel and longitudinal and must be understood from a larger picture including intra and interpersonal processes.

Question 149

fit literature

Answer 149

based in interactional psych. Started out as a broad concept and because of this many distinctions made between types of fit, but construct proliferation has become a topic of recent debate in terms of conceptualizations, measures (direct vs. indirect), and analytic approaches. Alternatively conceptualized as similarity, need-satisfaction, and demand-ability match. PG (person group) and PS (Person supervisor) fit given less attention overall. Large amount of heterogeneity in the fit literature, in conceptualizations and measurements as well as methodology. Complementary vs. supplementary fit. Fit research has started to include personality with realization that personality is important to work performance. there needs to be a focus on multidimensional conceptualizations of fit rather than all these individual ones scattered around everywhere, they need to be incorporated and expanded to explain more in outcomes

Question 150

types of fit

Answer 150

PJ, PO, PG, and PS fit PJ: Two conceptualizations: demands-abilities fit is the extent to which employee KSAs align with what job requires. Second is when values, needs, preferences are met by the job. PO: individual-org similarity in terms of values is primary conceptualization PG: person team, interpersonal compatibility between individuals and their work groups. Research indicates for PG fit differs measured at individual level vs aggregate level, mostly want to know about unit level outcomes so individual level preferable PS: match between supervisor and employee, related to LMX ASA model explains how high levels of fit are generated in orgs

Question 151

Participative interventions

Answer 151

important for intervention success. A steering group of employee and manager representatives is established; activities of that group should be documented as well as how it was formed, and level of decision latitude. All employees must be involved in some way in order for participatory interventions to be effective. Decide when and how employees will be involved and at which phases of the intervention.

Question 152

Phases of org interventions

Answer 152

Initiation: strategy developed and role of formal actors determined. Communication for the program is developed here. Screening: forms basis for developing actual content of intervention program, serves as baseline measurement for evaluating outcomes through pre and post measurements. Document how this is done. Action planning: develop the activities, action plans should be recorded. Include a description of the activities, their purpose and process (meetings) of action plan development. Develop and document plans for the activities and methods of evaluating the success. Use the four levels of intervention activities (targeting individual, group, leader, or org procedures/struture) to identify which mechanisms drive outcomes at each level. Implementation: document implementation activities before, during or after the intervention to improve the understanding of outcomes. Compare the plans for intervention activities against documentation of the activities that were actually implemented. Document everything Effect evaluation: assess the causal chain of effects to establish whether observed changes are due to intervention or to something else (changes in working procedures from the intervention leads to changes in working conditions, which leads to changes in health, well being performance etc.). different effects are seen after different amounts of time and thus at different time points. Monitor changes in attitudes, mental models, values, knowledge, resources, working conditions, etc.

Question 153

framework evaluating interventions

Answer 153

the nielson framework ensures external validity and maintains internal validity by proposing which elements should be examined when trying to determine the conditions under which an intervention may be successful, and how we can determine whether changes in outcomes can be ascribed to the intervention. within the Nielsen framework, there are four overarching categories that are crucial to evaluation over the phases of an intervention: org actors & their mental models, intervention context (both discrete and omnibus), intervention design, intervention process. The impact of interventions should involve multilevel evaluation: changes in attitudes, values and knowledge. Changes in individual resources. Changes in working conditions, changes in well being, changes in org procedures, changes in productivity and quality. Orgs should be perceived as a continuous process, thus interventions should be adapted to contextual conditions of the org. Evaluation should occur at every stage of the intervention process. Mental models of intervention phases and its process should be examined to rule out alternative explanations in case the intervention fails. Contextual factors can serve as mediator or moderator on link between intervention and its outcomes and may help rule out alternative explanations for intervention outcomes.

Question 154

consequences that have arisen or may arise as a result of technology in the workplace

Answer 154

- addiction to smartphones/computers, distracting from work - more work life balance issues since work is attached to cell phone now - may feel autonomy is threatened, be demotivated - need for retraining; IT, specialized tech skills, empathy, creative/innovative jobs

Question 155

what role will IO psychologists play in this new age of automation of jobs and technology?

Answer 155

- HR programs that are developed to retrain employees - evaluating attitudes towards technology integration and acceptance - basic change principles

Question 156

describe SDT

Answer 156

SDT is a theory of motivation that concern’s people’s growth tendencies and psychological needs. Focuses on motivation behind choices people make. Addresses 3 universal psychological needs of humans: competence, autonomy, and psych relatedness. When these needs are met, people will grow optimally. Social environment needs to nurture these needs in order for people to reach their full potential. Includes intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation. humans seek out optimal stimulation and challenging activities and find these activities intrinsically motivating because they have a basic need for competence

Question 157

discuss goal setting theory

Answer 157

A theory of motivation; goal setting is linked to task performance. Specific and challenging goals with feedback = better performance. Goals provide direction for people, what needs to be done, how much effort to put in. Difficult goals good but need to be attainable. Basically SMART goals. The outcomes of GST are self efficiency, goal commitment, limitations = sometimes personal goals in conflict with org or supervisor goals, which is bad for performance. Need to find balance between difficult goals and too difficult goals; employee needs to possess skill and competency to reach a goal. limited evidence to link goal setting to job sat.

Question 158

brief history of teams research; primary themes in teams research

Answer 158

Defining teams Developing taxonomies Input process outcome model (McGrath 1964) IPO model originally did not include time, suggested linear functioning; embedded into larger contexts and addition of temporal components, new constructs; IMO to include mediators and multi level nature of teams (Ilgen 2005); time becomes primary focal point themes in research Conflict, diversity, movement from linear to non linear, mental models, multilevel nature of teams, composition models, task complexity,